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ENCYCLOPAEDIA LONDINENSIS;
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Nun audiendi sunt homines imperiti, qui humano ingenio majorem, tel inutil etn , et rebus gerendis adverfam criminantur. Efl scilicet qua dam Scientiarum cognatio et concilialio ; unde et TLyxvy.hoiru.iciiiu.v vacant Graci ; ut in una
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DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE ILLUSTRATING ARCHITECTURE AND ASTRONOMY.
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ARCHITECTURE IS REPRESENTED IN A FEMALE FORM, SITTING UPON THE PEDES¬ TAL OF A PILLAR, WITH VARIOUS TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS AROUND HER, CARE¬ FULLY INSPECTING THE ACCURACY AND INGENUITY OF A DESIGN WHICH LIES IN HER LAP. AT HER SIDE THE FIGURE OF REASON, WITH A HELMET ON HER HEAD, PALLAS’S SHIELD IN HER LEFT HAND, AND MERCURY’S CADUCEUS IN HER RIGHT.
ASTRONOMY IS PERSONIFIED BY A BEAUTIFUL FEMALE AS URANIA, WITH A SILVER CRESCENT, CLOTHED IN AN AZURE MANTLE SPANGLED WITH STARS; HER EYES IN¬ TENSELY FIXED UPON THE STARRY FIRMAMENT; WITH AN ASTROLABE IN HER RIGHT HAND, AND A SCROLL, CONTAINING ASTRONOMICAL FIGURES, IN HER LEFT.
N o. 697 .
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA LONDINENSIS;
OR, AN
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES, and LITERATURE.
A R A
ARABIA, a country of Alia, famous from the remotett antiquity for the independence of its inhabitants du¬ ring the valt conquelts of the Atfyrians, Perfians, Greeks, and Romans; and, in latter times, for being the centre of an empire equal, if not fuperior, in extent to any that ever exilted. This country was, in the earlielt ages, called Arabah. Concerning the etymology there are various con¬ jectures. It has mod generally been derived from the Hebrew word din', Signifying, the zoejf, mixture, or traffic ; but, according to M. Volney, Arab , in the ancient lan¬ guage of thefe countries, (ignifies a folitude or defert. In its largeSt extent, Arabia lies between the 12th and 35th degrees of north latitude, and the 36th and 6 r ft of ealt longitude. Its grealeft length from north to fouth is a- bout 1430 miles, and its breadth from eaft to welt is 1200. It is bounded on the welt by Paleltine, part of Syria, the jlthmus of Suez, and the Red Sea, called by the Arabs the fea Al Kolzom\ on the ealt by the Euphrates, the Per- fiangulf, and bay of Ormos; on the north, by part of Sy¬ ria, Diyar-Becr, Irak, and Khuzetan ; and on the fouth by the limits of Babel-Mandel and the Indian ocean. It grows narrower as we approach the frontiers of Syria and Diyar-Becr: and, by realon of the proximity of the Eu¬ phrates to the Mediterranean, may be looked upon as a peninfula, and that one of the largelt in the whole world. Arabia Proper is much narrower, including little more than what was comprehended by the ancients under the name of Arabia Felix, and here the Arabs have been fet¬ tled almolt fince the flood. The firlt divifion of the pe¬ ninfula of Arabia was into Arabah and Kedem, as we learn from fcripture ; the firlt of which implies the weft, and die other the eaft, denoting the fituation of the two coun¬ tries. Ptolemy was the firlt who divided this peninfula into three parts, Arabia Petnea, Arabia Deferta, and A- rabia Felix, which divifion has generally prevailed fince his time.
Arabia Petrcea, on the eaft, was bounded by Syria and Arabia Deferta ; on the welt, by Egypt, or rather the ilthmus of Suez which feparates Afia from Africa, and the Heroopolitan gulf or wcltern arm of the Red Sea; on the north, by Paleltine, the lake Afphaltites, and Coelo- fyria; and on the fouth by Arabia Felix. This traCt did not admit of much cultivation, the greatell part being co¬ vered with dry fands, or riling into rocks, interfperfed here and there with fome fruitful fpots. Its metropolis was Petra, which by the Syrians was fly led Rakam, and in Scripture Jolitlicel. Several other cities of Arabia Pe- tra:a are mentioned by Ptolemy j but as it is very impro- Vol. II. No. 54.
B I A.
bable fuch a barren country fliould abound with large cl-- ties, we mult look upon them as inconfiderable places.
Arabia Deferta was bounded on the north by the Eu¬ phrates, which feparated it from Mefopotamia ; on the welt, by Syria, Judaea, and Arabia Petram ; on the ealt, by a ridge of mountains which feparated it from Babylo¬ nia and Chaldea; on the fouth by Arabia Felix, from which it was likewife feparated by feveral ridges of hills. By far the greatelt part of this kingdom, as well as the former, was a dreary defert, diverfified only with plains covered with land, or mountains confifting of naked rocks and precipices ; nor were they ever, unlefs fometimes at the equinoxes, refrellied with rain. The few vegetables which they produced were Hinted by a perpetual drought, and the nourifhment afforded them by tire nocturnal dews was greatly impaired by the heat of the fun in the day¬ time. Throughout the defects were found huge moun¬ tains of fand, formed by the violence of the winds that continually blew over them in the day-time, though they ceafed in the night. Wells and fountains were for the molt part exceedingly rare ; yet, notwithstanding the fterilityof thefe countries, the valt plains of fand -were interfperfed with fruitful fpots, which appeared here and there like fo many illands in the auidft of the ocean. Thefe being ren¬ dered extremely delightful by their verdure, and the more fo by the neighbourhood of thofe frightful deferts, the Arabs encamped upon them; and, having confumed every thing they founduponone, removed toanother, as is thecultom of theirdefcendants the Bedow^eens at this day. Thefe fruitful fpots were likewife frequent in Lybia, and by the Egyp¬ tians called anafes, or abafes, as we learn from Strabo. The barren part of Arabia Felix, bordering upon the Red Sea, was in like manner interfperfed with abafes; which probably gave the name of Abafeni to a nation fettled there, and in the adjacent fertile region. A body- of thefe, it is faid, eroding the (traits of Babel-Mandel, paf- fed into Ethiopia, which from them received the name of Abaffia. From this account of Arabia Deferta, we may realonably conclude, that the towns faid by Ptolemy to have been Situated in it were places of very little confequence.
Arabia Felix was bounded on the north by the two king¬ doms j ult deferibed on the fouth, by the Red Sea ; on the ealt and welt, by part of that fea, together with the Ara¬ bian and Perfian gulfs. In Strabo’s time, it was divided into five provinces, by the oriental hiltorians called Yaman , Hcjaz, Tehama, Najd, and Yamama. In this diftridt Stood feveral towns, particularly Nyfa, famous for being the birth-place of Bacchus; and Mu fa, or Muza, a celebra- B - ted
a A R A
fed emporium or harbour, where the Arabian merchants . Minted with their frankincenfe, fpices, and perfumes. Thefe two Were (ituated in the province of Yarnan. In that of Hejaz flood the hill more famous cities of Mecca and Medina ; alfo Thaifa or Taifa, Gjudda or.Jodda, Yanbo or A1 Yanbo, and Madian, the Modiana of Pto¬ lemy, and the Midian or Madian of Scripture. Of the time when thefe kingdoms were fil'd peopled, we have no certain accounts. The mod condderable nations inhabit¬ ing Arabia Petraea, in the early ages, were the Iflimae- litcs, the Nabatei or Nabatlieans, the Cednei or Kedareni, and the Agareni or Hagareni; and of thefe the Ifhmaelites were the mod powerful, if they did not comprehend all the red; and, if the Hagareni were net the fame people with them, they mud at lead, have been nearly related. Kiinchi, an oriental hidorian, inlinuates, . that they were originally the children of ilagar by an Arab, after Ihe had left Abraham. In after-ages, the names of all the nations (ituated here were abforbed in that of Saracens, by which t he Ifhmaelites are didinguiflfe'd in the Jerufalem Targurn. A nation alfo mentioned by Pliny, called Arraceni, and Sarraceni by Ptolemy and Diofcorides, which was probably no other than the Ifhmaelites above mentioned. In Ara¬ bia Deferta feveral tribes redded, all of whom were very obfeure, except the Aidtae and Agrrei. The former are fuppofed by Bochart to have been Job’s -countrymen, and the latter to have been the fame witli the Hagareni, Ar¬ raceni, or Sarraceni, above mentioned. Arabia Feiix was inhabited by many different tribes ; the mod remarkable of which were the Sabaei, Gerrrei, Minae or Miniuei, A- tramitse, Maranitae, Catabani, Afcitce, Komeriue, Sap- phoritae, Omanitce, Saraceni, Nabatluei, Thamydeni, and Bnizomense ; but neither their limits nor dtuation can now be determined with any precidon.
According to the oriental hidorians, the Arabs are to be divided into two clalfes; viz. the old IJ Arabians, and the prejent. The mod famous tribes among the former were thofe of Ad, Thamud, Tafm, Jades, Jorham, A- malek, Amtem, Hafoem, Abil, and Bar. Concerning thefe, though now entirely lod and fwallowed up among other tribes, there are forne remarkable traditions, of which the following may ferve as a fpecimen. The tribe of Ad deduced their origin from Ad the fon of Aws, or Uz, the fon of Aram, the fon of Shem, who, after the contudon of tongues, fettled in A1 Abkaf, or the winding fands in the province of Hadramant, on the confines of Yarnan, where his poderity greatly multiplied. Their fird king was S'neddad, the fon of Ad, who built a dately palace and made a delightful garden in the deferts of A- den, which he defigned as an imitation of the celedial paradife. This garden he called Iran: and, when it was finifhed, he fet out with a great retinue to take pofTeffion of it; but, having feme thoughts of alfuming divine ho¬ nours, he was dedroyed by a temped' from heaven, while yet a day’s journey from his paradife. The garden and palace are faid to have been, pteferved, as a monument of divine vengeance. After the death of Sheddad, the king¬ dom of Ad was governed by along feries of princes, con¬ cerning whom many fables are related by the eadern wri¬ ters. The conclufion of their hidory, however, is as fol¬ lows. “ The Adites, in procefs of time, falling into ido¬ latry, God lent the prophet Hud, fuppofed to be the fame with Heber, to preach to and reclaim them. But they re¬ fusing to acknowledge his million, or to obey him, God fent an hot and fuftbeating wind, which blew feven nights and eight days, and, entering at their nodrils, paded through their bodies, and dedroyed them all, a very few only ex¬ cepted, who had lidened to Hud, and retired with him to another place.” Others relate, “ that, before this ter¬ rible catadrophe, they had been previoufly chadifed with a three years drought; and therefore they fent Kail Ebn Ithar, and Morthed Ebn Sdaa, with 70 other principal men, to Mecca, then in the hands of the tribe of Amalek, whole prince was Moavviyah Ebn Beer, to pray for rain. Kail having begged of God that he would lend rain to tire
B I A.
people of Ad, three clouds appeared, a white, a red, and’ a black one ; and a voice from heaven ordered him to cboofe winch he would. Kail failed not to make choice of the lad, thinking it would be laden with mod rain; but, when this cloud came over them, it proved to be fraught with a vio¬ lent temped, which dedroyed them ail.
The prejent Arabs, according to their own hidorians, are fpru.ng from Kahtan, the fame with Joktan, the fon of Eber ; and Adnan, defeended from. Illimael tire fon of A- braham. The former of thefe they call th e. genuine or pure Arabs, and the latter the naturalized or injititious Arabs. Joktan the fon of Eber had 13 fons, who fome time after the confufion of tongues, fettled in Arabia, extending themfelves from Media to Sephar, in the Couth-eaflem part ot that peninfula. According to the Arabian hido¬ rians, he had 31 fons, all of whom left Arabia and went into India, except two, viz. Yarab and Jorham ; the for¬ mer of whom, they fay, gave the name both to- their- cou n- try and language. Idimael and his mother Hagar, having been dif miffed by Abraham, entered into the wildernefs-. of Paran, as related in the book of Genefis. The facred hidorian informs us, that during his refidence in the wil- dernefs he married an Egyptian ; and the Arabian writers, fay that he alio took to wife tile daughter cf Modad king ot Hejaz, lineally defeended from Jorham the founder of that kingdom. By the Egyptian he was probably the fa¬ ther of the Scenite or wild Arabs and having allied him— felt to the Jorhamites, he is confidered by tits Arabians as the father of the greated part of their nation.
Kahtan, or Joktan, is laid to have fird reigned, and worn a diadem, in Yarnan ; hut the particulars of his reign we no where learn. He was fucceeded by Yarah already mentioned, lie by Yadiab, and Yafliab by Abd Shenis.. He was fuccefsful in his expeditions againd his enemies,, carried off great fpoils, and took many of them prifoners. He is faid to have built the city of Saba or Mareb, and above it a dupendous mound or building which formed a vad refervoir, containing all the water that came down from the mountains. By means of this refervoir the kings ot Yarnan not only fuppiied the inhabitants of Saba and their lands with water, but like wife kept the territories, they had fubdued in greater awe, as by cutting off their communication 'with it they could at any time greatly dif— trefs them. Abd Shenis was fucceeded by his fon Ham- yar, from whom the tribe of Hamyar is faid to take its name; and he by a feries of 17 kings, concerning whom we have no remarkable particular, except that from one of them, called Africus, the continent of Africa took its name. The lad of thefe was fucceeded by a daughter named Balkis or Bdkis, whom fome will have to be the queen of Sheba who vifited Solomon. After Balkis came Malea, furnained NaJIierolneam on account of his magnifi¬ cence and liberality. Having bad bad fuccefs in an ex¬ pedition, where his army was overwhelmed by torrents of land, lie caufed a brazen fratue to be erefted with the following infeription in the old Hainyaritic character. “ There is no paffage behind me, no moving farther; the fon of Sharliabil.” He was fucceeded by Shamar Yaraafh, fo called on account of his being affeited witli a condant tremor. To this prince the city, cf Samarcand is faid to owe its exidence. After Shamar Yaraafh we have a lid of 15 kings, of whom nothing remarkable is recorded, ex* cept of one Abu Carb Afaad, who adorned the Caaba or temple of Mecca with tapedry, and fird introduced Ju - daifm among the Hamyarites. He was put to deatli by his fubjedts, probably on account of religion. The lad of the 15 kings above mentioned was called Abrahah, who was fucceeded by his fon Sabban. He had that famous fword called Samfannah, which afterwards came into the hands of the klialif A1 Rafiiid. This prince was fucceed j ed by Dim Shanater, who had fix fingers on each. hand. He was abandoned to unnatural luft, and dethroned.for abiding fome of the nobled youths in the kingdom. To him fucceeded Yufef, who lived about 70 years before Mahomet. He perfecuted all thofe who would not turn
Jews8
A R A
Jews, putting them to death by various tortures, die tnoft common of which was throwing them into a glowing pit of fire; whence he had the appellation of the /or<2? of the pit. This perfecution is taken notice of in the Koran. The laft ot.ahe ilamyarit'ic monarchs was Dim Jadan, ac¬ cording to Abulfeda ; but, according to others, the Y li¬ fe f juft mentioned was furnamed D/iu Nowas on account of his flowing curls, and was the laft who reigned in an uninterrupted fuccefiion. He was a. bigotted Jew, and treated his lhbjeiSIs with fuch barbarity, that they were obliged to afk the affi dance of Elefbas or Elefbaan, king of Ethiopia, againft him. Dim Nowas, not being able to make head againft tire Ethiopians', lie forced his horfe in¬ to the fea, and loft his life and crown together.
The king of Ethiopia, having thus become mafier of Yaman, eftabliflied there the Chriftian religion, and fixed Abryat, an Ethiopian, upon the throne. He was fucceed- ed by Abralia-Ebn- Al-Sabah, furnamed the Slitno/cd, from a wound he had formerly received in it. He was fuc- ceeded by two other Ethiopian princes; but at laft Seif Ebn Dim Yazan, of the old royal family of Hamyar, ha¬ ving obtained aiTiftance from the king of Perfia which had been denied him by the emperor Heraclius, recovered liis throne, and drove out the Ethiopians; but was him- felf fiain by fome who were left behind. The fucceeding princes were appointed by the Perfians, till Yaman fell into the hands of Mahomet.
We have already mentioned the vaft mound or refervoir made by Abd S, herns, from which he fupplied the city of Saba with water. This building flood like a moun¬ tain above the city, and was by the Sabaeans efteemed io ftrong, that they were under no fear of its ever falling. The water rofe almoft to the height of 20 fathoms ; and was fecured on every fide by a work fo folid, that many of the inhabitants had their houfes upon it. About the time of Alexander the Great, however, a terrible inun¬ dation-happened. According to the Arabian hiftorians, God, being difpleafed at the pride and infolence of the in¬ habitants of this city, refolved to humble them ; and for this purpofe fent a mighty flood, which broke down the mound by night vvhilft the inhabitants were afleep, and carried away the whole city, with the neighbouring towns and people. This inundation is ftyled in the Koran, the inundation of Al-Harm\ and occafioned fo terrible a de- ftrudtion, that from thence it .became a proverbial faying to exprefs a total difperfion, “ that they were gone and Scattered like Saba.” By this accident no lefs than eight tribes were forced to remove their habitations ; fome of which gave rife to the kingdoms of Hira and GhafTan.
The kingdom of Hira was founded by Malec, a de- feendant of Cahlanjhe brother by Hamyar; but, after three defeents, the throne came by marriage to the Lakhmians, who were defeendants of Lakhm the fon of Amru, the fon of Abd Ems. Thefe princes, whofe general name was Mondar, preferved their dominion, notwithftanding fome fmall interruption from the Perfians, till the khalifat of Abubecr, when A1 Mondar Magrur, the laft of them, loft his life and crown by the arms of Khaled-Ebn-Al- Walid. This kingdom continued 622 years and eight months, according to Ahmed Ebn Yulef. Its princes were under the protection of the kings of Perfla, and were their lieutenants over the Arabs of Irak, as the kings of G Italian were for the Roman emperors over thofe of Syria.
The kingdom of Ghaflan was founded by the tribe of Azd, who, according to fome, fettling in Syria Damafce- na, near a water called GhaJJan, from thence took their name. Having driven out the Dajaamian Arabs, who be¬ fore poflefled the country, they made themfelves mafters of a confiderable territory. Here they maintained them¬ felves, according to Abuifede, 613 years, w hen the laft of their kings fubmitted to the khalif Omar, and embra¬ ced .the Mahometan religion ; but, afterwards taking a difguft, they foon returned to Chriftianit^, and took re¬ fuge in Conftantinople.
The kingdom of Hejaz was founded by Jorham the fon
B I A. 3
of Kahtan, where princes of his line reigned till the time of Iflimael, who married the daughter of Modad one of thofe princes. Some authors relate that Kidar, one of IflvmaePs Cons, had the crown refigned to him by his uncles the Jorhamites: but, according to others, the defeendants of Ilhmael expelled that tribe. After the expul lion of the Jorhamites, the government of Hejaz feems not to have continued long in the hands of one prince, but to have been divided among the heads of tribes, almoft in the fame manner as the Arabs of the'defert are governed at this day. The tribe of Khozaab, after the inundation of Saba, fled into Hejaz, and fettled in a valley near Mecca. Here they founded an ariftocracy, affumingto themfelves^ both the government of the city of Mecca, and t lie cut- tody of the Caaba or temple. They continued mafters of this city and territory, as well as prefidents of the Caaba, for many ages ; and. were at length fucceeded therein by the tribe of Koreifh. After the Koreifli had polfdfed them¬ felves of Mecca, they kept up the lame form of govern¬ ment w hich prevailed there before.
Thefe are the 11:0ft memorable events recorded by the Arabian hiftorians, previous to the time of Mahomet, who eftabliflied the Mohammedan religion and government. A. fubjeft fo curious and important as the efta’olifliment of Mahometanifm, which has been pro felled for more than eleven centuries by very many millions of the human race, perhaps bv one-third of the inhabitants of the globe, and which at prelent prevails from the Ganges to Mo¬ rocco, exclufive of a vaft number of large and populous iflands, and every country where the ‘tribes of Malays fettle, in one direction ; and from the fouthern extremity of Arabia, to the borders of Hungary, in another, deierves to be particularly noticed and explained.
Mahomet, or more properly, Mohammed, ftyled The Impojlor, from being the founder of this Angular and fpread- ing faith, was born in the year 569 of the Chriftian cera. According to the Eaftern hiftorians, he was defeended in direef line from Iflimael. Kedar, or, as the Arabians- call him Kidar, after his fattier Iflimael’.s death, commu¬ nicated his name to tiie greateft part of Arabia Petriea. He was. fucceeded in his authority and pofleflions by his- fon Hamal ; Hamal by Nabet, and Nabet by Salaman. After Salaman came Al Honieifa, then A1 Yafa,. whofe fon Odad was fucceeded by Odd the father of Adnan. Counting ten generations forward in the fame line,, we come at laft to Felir, who feems to have diftingniflied hini- felf by fome glorious actions, as he was denominated Ko- reijh, on account of his bravery. He is to be confidered as the root of the poiiteft and meft celebrated tribe of the Arabs. He had three fons, Caleb, Mohareb, and Al Hareth. From Mohareb the Banu Mohareb,, denomi¬ nated likewif'e Sheibati, took their origin ; from Al H&- retli, the Banu Al Kholoj ; and from Galeb., in a direffc line, came Mahomet. Galeb was 'the father of Lowa ; and he of Caab, whofe fon Morrah had for his immediate defeendant Kelab the father of Kofa. It was this Kola who aggrandized the tribe of the Koreifli, by becoming the prince and governor of Mecca. He was fucceeded by his fecond fon Abd Menaf, to whom the prophetic light, which is faid to have manifefted itfelf in his face, gave the right of primogeniture. Abd Menaf was fucceeded by his fon Amni, furnamed Hdfhnn, “ or one that broke bread,” on account of his Angular generofity in providing and diftributing bread, during a famine at Mecca. In fo great veneration is the memory of Kafliem held by tiie Arabs,, that from him the family of Mahomet are called Ha/hemites ; and he who prefides over Mecca and Medina, who nnift always be of the race of Mahomet, lias' to this day the title of the “Prince of the Hafhemites.” Hii- Iham died at Gaza in Syria, and was fucceeded by his foil- Abdal Motalleb or Matalcb. He is faid to have been ex¬ tremely affable and eafy of accefs, as- well as juft and ge¬ nerous to a great degree. Tiie well wliich God fhewed to Hagar in the wildernefs, is faid to have been miracu- loufly difeovered to Motalleb, about 500 years after it had-
been
4 A R A
been filled up by Amru, prince of the Jorhamites. This well is by the Arabs called Zemzem ; which fome derive from her calling to Ilhmael, when Ihe fpied it, in the Egyptian tongue, Zem, Zem , i. e. Stay, Stay ; though others afcribe it to' a different origin. The water of this well, which is on the ea(t fide of the Caaba, in Mecca, is highly reverenced; being not only drunk with particular devo¬ tion by the pilgrims, but alfo lent in bottles to molt parts of the Mahometan dominions.
Abdallah, the father of Mahomet, was a younger fon of Abdal Motalleb, and remarkable for liis beauty. In his 24th or 25th year, he married Amina, the daughter of Waheb, the fon of Abdal Menaf. She is reprefented as the molt beautiful, prudent, and virtuous, woman of her tribe ; and confequently the molt worthy of Inch an ex¬ traordinary perfon as Abdallah. He died young, and, in his father’s life-time, left his widow and infant fon in very mean circumftances. Abdal Motalleb was, therefore, obliged to take' care of his grand fon Mahomet; which he not only did during his life, but at his death enjoined his eldeft fon Abu Taleb to provide for him for the future. Abu Taleb was extremely kind to his nephew, and in- llructed him in the bufinefs of merchandife ; for which purpofe he took him into Syria when he was but thirteen years of age, recommending him to Khadijah, a noble and rich widow, for her faftor ; in whole fervice he behaved fo well, that file married him, and thus railed him to an equality with the richeft in Mecca.
Though Mahomet had probably formed a defign of in¬ troducing his new religion pretty early, he did not avow it till the fortieth year of his age. The grand article of his faith was, the unity of the divine nature, which he pretended was violated by the Jews and Chriflians no lefs than by the Pagans; for which reafon, he refolved to make an attempt to refcue the world from the ignorance and fuperftition which prevailed at that time. This reforma¬ tion he intended fhould begin in his own family ; and therefore, having retired with his houfehold to a cave in mount Hara, near Mecca, he there opened the fecret of his million to Khadijah : acquainting her that the angel Gabriel had juft appeared to him, and told him that he was appointed the apollle of God. Khadijah, her coulin Waraka Ebn Nawfal, Ali the (bn of Abu Taleb, and Abu ■ Beer, a man of very confiderable authority among the Ko- reifii, were the firfi: converts to his new doctrine, and pro- mifed to fupport him in it, at the hazard of their lives. Mahomet, therefore, entered upon his apofiolic function with uncommon diligence, and loon gained over his uncle Hamza, and Omar Ebn A1 Khattah, a perfon very much efteemed, and who before had been his violent oppofer. The Koreilh, however, came to a refolution to proferibe all who fliould embrace Mahomet’s dodtrine. In confe- qtience of this refolution, the Mojlems, as his followers were called, were treated with great leverity ; and the Koreilh entered into a folemn league or covenant again!! the Hafiie- mites, and the family of Abdal Motalleb in particular, en¬ gaging themfelves to contract no marriages with them, nor to have any manner of communication with them other- wife; and, to give this the greater weight, they reduced it into writing, and laid it up in the Caaba. Upon this, the tribe became divided into two fadtions; and all the family of Hafliem, both Modems and unbelievers, repair¬ ed to Abu Taleb as their head ; except only Abdal Uzza, the fon of Abdal Motalleb, who, out of hatred to his ne¬ phew, went over to the oppofite party. After this, the authority of Abu Taleb v/as fcarcely (Efficient to protect Mahomet from the fury of the Koreilh, who made fre¬ quent attempts upon his life.
The two fadtions into which the tribe of Koreilh was divided, fubfifted for five years, when they were put an end to by a very ftrange accident. Mahomet told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeltly (hewed his dis¬ approbation of the 'covenant entered into againfl them, by fending a worm to eat out every word, of their covenant except the name of God. With this- particular Abu Taleb
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immediately acquainted the Koreifn ; offering, in cafe it proved falfe, to deliver up his nephew to them ; but, if it fiiould prove true, he infilled that they ought to lay slide their animofity, and annul the league they had made againfl the Hafhemites. To this they acquiefced ; and, going to infpedt the writing, found it to be as Abu Taleb had told them; the words “ In thy name, O God,” being the only ones which remained. On fo remarkable a proof of the divine difpleafure, the league was immediately an¬ nulled, and all ails of hoflility between the two parties ceafed. After this event, Mahomet remained with his uncle Abu Taleb, who furvived the reconciliation only about eight months. The fame year alfo died Khadijah, Mahomet’s wife. Her death, as well as that of his uncle, proved a great detriment to his affairs ; for the Koreilh, notwithflanding the former reconciliation, began now to perlecute him with more violence than ever. He was therefore obliged to fly for flielter to A1 Tayef, and was expoled to great danger : however, lie gained many con¬ verts, and among!! them lix of the Jewilh tribe of Khaz- raj ; who, on their return home, failed not to fpeak much in commendation of their new religion, and exhorted their fellow-citizens immediately to embrace it. Thefe con¬ verts of the tribe of Khazt ai are by the Arab writers called Al Anfar, Al Anfarii, or Anfars ; that is, afliflants, favour¬ ers, fupporters, &c. becaufe they allifted and fupported the prophet when he was purfued to the very brink of de- ftruclion. They firfi met Mahomet on a little hill called Al Ahabah, where a temple Hood, and where they firfi took an oath to exert themfelves in fupport of their new apollle and his religion. An uninterrupted friendfiiip and har¬ mony reigned for a long time amongft the members of the Jewilh tribes of Khazraj, Koreidha, and Nadir, whole great progenitor, fay the Arabs, was Aaron the fon of Ararara. Mahomet therefore inlinuating himfelf into the good opinion of the Anfars, they readily embraced his re¬ ligion, and proved of very confiderable fervice to him.
Hie Koreilh, finding that Mahomet had confiderably extended his influence, and hearing of the league con¬ cluded with the Anfars, refolved, in a council, to put an end to his life. To accomplilh this with the greater fafe- ty, they agreed that a man fiiould be chofen out of every tribe, and that each fiiould have a blow at him ; that fo the guilt of his death might fall equally on all the tribes ; and thus the Hafliemites would be prevented from reveng¬ ing the death of their kinfman, as they were much infe¬ rior in power to the reft of the tribes put together. Ma¬ homet now directed his companions to repair to Medina, where they might be alfured of protection. This they ac¬ cordingly did : but he himfelf, with Abu Beer and Ali, remained behind. The confpirators, therefore, aftembled at the prophet’s door ; but he, to amufe them, ordered Ali to lie down in his place, and to wrap himfelf up in his green cloak ; this Ali complied with, and Mahomet efcaped to the houfe of Abu Beer. The confpirators, in the mean time, perceiving through a crevice Ali wrapped up in the green cloak, took him for Mahomet, and watch¬ ed there till morning, when Ali arofe, and they found themfelves deceived. The prophet then retired with Abu Beer to a cave in mount Thur, a little fouth of Mecca, where he had ftill a more narrow efcape, and with great difficulty let out for Medina. The Koreilh, being inform¬ ed of the route he had taken, lent a party after him, un¬ der the command of Soraka Ebn Malec ; but, as the Arab hiftorians tell us, Soraka’ s horfe fell down when he at¬ tempted to feize Mahomet. Upon this he recommended himfelf to the prophet’s prayers, and remounted his horfe without hurt His companions, however, urging him to make another attempt, his horfe fell down witli him a le- cond time ; upon which he returned to Mecca, without offering any farther violence to Mahomet, who arrived without more moleftation at Medina, and was received with the greatefi demonllrations of joy.
From the circumflance of tiiis flight, which happened in the 6z2d year of Chrift, the fifty-fourth year of Maho¬ met’s
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nict’s age, and the tenth of his miniffry, his followers, , the Mahometans, compute therr rime ; and the era is called in Arabic, Hegira, “ thfFlight .”
On Mahomet’s arrival at Medina, his firff care was to Build a mofque for his religious worfliip, and a houfe for himfetf. The city of Medina, at that time, was inhabited partly by Jews and partly by heretical Chriltians, that formed two factions which perfecuted each other with, great- violence. This gave Mahomet fuch an opportunity of propagating his new religion, that in a (liort time the eity was entirely at his command. Here he ffrengthened himfelf by marrying Ayeflra the daughter of Abu Beer ; and gave his own daughter Fatima in marriage to Ali, the f'on of Abu Taleh. . The next point he had in view was the union of the Mohajerin, or thofe who fled from. Mecca on account of their religion, with the Anfars above-men¬ tioned. To facilitate this, after his mofque and houfe were finiflfed, he eflablifhed among tire Modems a frater¬ nity, the principal fratute of which was, that they fliould be confidered as brethren, and moft cordially love, and mutually cherifli, one another, to the utinofl of their power. This reconciliation took place at the vend- of the firff year- of the Hegira.
Mahomet, now finding himfelf at the head of a very ror- midable party, began to make reprifals on his enemies the Koreifh. His firff exploit was the- taking of a caravan at¬ tended with a fmall guard-; and this being accomplilhed by a party confiding only of nine-men, contributed greatly to encourage the Modems. But- what mod: eflablifhed Mahomet’s affairs, and was indeed the foundation of all- his future greatnefs, was his gaining the battle of Bedr ; of which we have the following account. The prophet being informed' that Abu Sofi'an EbmHarb, who was at the head of the Koreifh, efcorted a caravan with, only thirty or forty men* he ref'olved to intercept it. To this lie was excited by the riches of the caravan*, which con¬ fided of the clioicefl merchandife of Syria, carried on the backs of a- thoufand- camels. But Abu Sofian, having no¬ tice of Mahomet’s motions, difpatched a courier to Mecca, requefling fuccours from his countrymen. Upon this, Mahomet drew together all his forces, which amounted to no more than 313, while his enemies confided of near a. thoufand. The M'ofiems, however* advanced to battle- with a fearlefs confidence* their leader having poffefled- their minds with an aflurance that paradife awaited thofe who died fighting for the caufe of their prophet ; the gra¬ tifications of which were held out to be fuel! as bed fuited- the amorous complexions of the Arabians. Houries of black-eyed girls, refplendent in beauty, blooming youth, a-nd virgin purity ; every moment of pleafure was there to be prolonged to a thoufand years, and the powers of the man were to be increafed an hundred fold, to render him capable of enjoying fuch felicity. To thofe who furvived, rich fpoils, and the pofleflion of beautiful female captives, were to be their rewards on earth. Thus prepoflefled, they propofed, before the battle began, that three cham¬ pions, from each party, fhould engage each other in fingle combat. In this the Moflem champions were vi&orious, and the event greatly difeouraged the Koreifh. Mahomet now attacked them with fuch bravery* that they were foon put to flight, leaving feventy dead on the fpot, and having many more taken prifoners. The lofs on Mahomet’s fide was only fourteen men ; and among the prifoners taken was Al Abbas, the prophet’s uncle. Though this adlion may feem of little confequence in itfelf, it was of very great advantage to Mahomet’s affairs. He was immedi¬ ately treated with the higheff relpeCt by the Najafhi, or king of Ethiopia, .who received a particular account of the victory foon after it was gained ; while the fuperfti- tious Modems did not fail to look upon it as an evident declaration of heaven in their favour.
The Koreifli, to be revenged on Mahomet for their late defeat, fent Amru Ebn Al As, who afterwards conquered Egypt, with fome other of their principal people, on an evnbafly to the king of Ethiopia, to intereft him in their Vofo II. No. J4«
B I. A. / s*
quarrel, and to entreat him to deliver up the Modem, re- fugees then at his court. But the bad fuccefs that had- attended the arms of the Koreifh, joined to the excufes, made by tile refugees, not only .influenced the Najafhi from delivering them up, but alfo prompted him, to difmifs the ambaffitdors, : and- return the prefents they had brought, him. In the- mean time, Abu Sofian, who had fworn ne¬ ver to ufe perfumes or. enjoy women till he had another battle with Mahomet, fet out from Mecca with a body of 200 horfe. He advanced to a poll within three miles of Medina, where lie burnt a. barn, with a man in it, that was winnowing wheat- Mahomet moved immediately to wards him, with a detachment of cavalry ; but Abu Sofian was fo intimidated at his approach, that he fled with pre¬ cipitation, leaving behind him all the hacks of flour that had been provided for the fubfiftence of his troops. In¬ tend therefore of coming to an ; engagement, as he had fworn, he contented- hint Rdf with alarming the country, and pillaging fuch as he fufpeffed of favouring Mahomet- anifm. This year Mahomet conquered the tribes called Sana Sdlatm, Ghntfan-, apd the Banu Kainoka ; and took a-, rich caravan belonging to the Koreifli, acquiring 25,000. dirhems for his own (bare of the plunder.— Thus ended, the fecond year of the Hegira.
In the year of Chrift 625, being the third of the Hegira, the Koreifli aflembled an army of'3000 men, among whom were 200 horfe and 700 armed with coats of mail. The command was given to Abu Sofian, who was attended by his wife Henda Bint Otba, and fat down at a village fix miles from Medina. Mahomet marched outagainff them at the head of only 900 men ; of thefe 200 were curailTiers.; but had only one horfe befides his own in the whole army. He diftributed. three flandards among his troops; of which one was given to the tribe of Aws, another to that of- Khazraj, and the third to Mohajerin. The grand ffandard was carried before- the prophet by Mofaab jjji.bn Omar. With thefe forces Mahomet formed a camp ngar OljQd, a mountain about four miles north of Medina, which he contrived to have on his back ; and, the better to fecure his men from being ftirrounded, he placed fifty cholen archers in the rear, with Ariel orders not to quit their pofl.. The army of the Koreifli. was drawn up in form of a ere-, feent, the right wing being commanded' by Khaled Ebn Al- Walid, afterwards fo terrible to the Greeks; the left by Acrema Ebn Abu Jahl ; and the centre by Abu Sofian. The corps de referve- was headed by Abu Sofian’s wife, accompanied by fifteen other matrons, who performed the' office of drummers, lamenting the fate of their country¬ men fiain at Bedr, in order to animate the troops to battle. The attack was begun by the Modems, who fell upon the enemy with fuch fury, that their centre immediately be¬ gan to give way. Ali flew Arta the enemy’s great fland- ard-bearer; which ftruck- them with fuch terror,. that they foon betook themfelves to flight, falling foul upon their own corps de referve. Victory had now been no longer doubtful, notwithflanding the vaft, inferiority of Maho¬ met’s troops, had not the fifty archers, contrary to the prophet’s exprefs command, quitted their port. Upon this Khaled, perceiving the. Moflem army to be greatly ex- pofed, attacked them in. the rear with fuch bravery, that he turned the fortune-of the day. After putting the troops in diforder, he cried out with all his might, “ Mahomet is (lain;” which had fuch an effect upon the. Modems, that they immediately fled, nor could the turnoff endea¬ vours of the prophet himfelf afterwards rally them. He was therefore obliged to quit the field of battle ; in doing which he was very near lofing his life, being ffruck down by a fftower of flones, and wQunded in the face, by two arrows, which occafioned the fofs of two of his fore-teeth. Of the Modems feventy were (lain ; among whom were Hamza the prophet’s uncle, and Mofaab the ffandard- bea,rer. Amongff the wounded were Abu Beer, Onsar, and Othman ; but, as foon as they underflood that the. prophet was fafe, they returned to the charge with great intrepidity, and, after an obffinate difpute, carried him £
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■off. The good retreat madediy thefe champions fo difcon- raged the troops of Abu Sotian, tiiat they did not purfue the flying-enemy, but contented them'felveswith reniain- ing mafters of the field of battle-; nor did that general, though he exulted in his victory, make any farther ufe of it tlptn to give Mahomet a challenge to meet him the next year at Bedr, which was accepted; but, after his return 'to Mecca, he deftred a truce with the Modems, which was readily granted.
The next year (A.T). 626.-) Mahomet, befides feveral ■other lefs confiderable fucceffes, reduced a fortrefs belong¬ ing to the Jewifh tribe of A1 Nadir, who had revolted. At this time he forbade his followers the ufe of wine, or to play at games of chance, on account of the disturbances and quarrels which were often excited by that means among them. This year alfo he marched his army to Bedr, to meet Abu Sofian, as he had promised the year before : but, that general’s heart failing him, he returned home without ‘facing the prophet; and this a£t of coward¬ ice the Modems did not fail to impute to a terror lent im¬ mediately from God. The year following, however, the Koreifh, in conjunction with the tribe of Ghatfcn, and the Jews of A1 Nadir and Koreidha, affembled an army of i2,coo men, with which they formed the fiege of Medina; thus threatening Mahomet and his followers with utter deftruCtion. On the enemy’s approach, Mahomet ordered a deep diteii to be dug round the city, and went out to defend it with 3000 men. The Arabs- having inverted the town, both (ides remained in a rtate of inactivity for fome time ; w hich w as fo well employed by Mahomet, that he found means to corrupt fome of the leading3 men in the enemy’s camp. The good effects of this foon appeared ; for a champion having advanced to the Mortem entrench¬ ments, and challenged the belt man in their army to fight him in fingle combat, the challenge was accepted by Ali, who flewhim and another that came to his .affi fiance ; af- ' ter which, thofe who had been corrupted by Mahomet defected their camp ; foAhat the refidue were obliged to raife the fiege, and return home.
Mahomet now continued to’ be fuccefsful, gradually re¬ ducing the Arab tribes one after another. In 628, he fent an agent to Conftantin-ople, defiring leave of the Greek emperor to trade with his fubjedts, which was immedi¬ ately granted. The fame year alfo he concluded a peace with the inhabitants of Mecca, and obtained liberty to perform his devotions at the Caaba. In 1629, he began 'to think of propagating his religion beyond the bounds of Arabia, and lent meffengers to feveral neighbouring princes to invite them to embrace Mahometanifm: but, before fending the letters, he caufed a filver feal to be made, on which were engraved the following words : “ Matiomet the Aposti.f, of-God.” This feal, lie-believed, would procure the letters a more favourable reception at the courts of thofe princes whither they were directed. The firft he addreffed was Khofru Parviz, king of Perfia ; who, -finding that Mahomet had put his own name before his, fore the letter, and difmiffed the meffenger very abruptly. He alfo fent a letter to the fame purpol'e to Cohftantinople ; but, though theempercr Heraciius difmiffed his meffengers honourably, he refufed to abandon the- Chriftian faith. Befides thefe, he wrote- other letters, which he diftributed among thofe whom he thought mod likely to acknowledge him for an aportle. We do not find, however," that, by means of letters,- he ever introduced his religion into afio- ' reign country. While Mahomet was thus employed, he very narrowly- efcaped being poifoned by a Jewefs, who wanted, as -the faid, to make an experiment whether he was a prophet or not. This was done by communicating fome poifon to a fhoulder of mutton, of w-hich one of his companions,- named Baffiar Ebn A1 Bara,- eating heartily,
- died upon the fpot ; and Mahomet himfelf, though he -lived three years after, never enjoyed perfect health. Not- withftanding this misfortune, however, he ftill continued his enterprifes. The year 630 was urtiered in by the con- •'Verfion.-of Khalid Ebn A1 Walid, Amru Ebn A1 As, and
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Othrnan Ebn Telha, three of the mod confiderable per- fons among the Koreiih ; and this foon enabled him to be¬ come mafter of the w-hole peninfula of Arabia. This year alfo the inhabitants of Mecca took it into their heads to violate the treaty concluded with Mahomet ; for the tribe of Beer, who were the confederates of the Koreiih, at¬ tacking thofe of Khozaab, who -.were in alliance with Ma¬ homet, maflacred twenty of them, and were affified by. a party of the Koreiih themfelvbs-. The confequence of this violation was ealily foreleen, and Abu Sofian made him¬ felf a journey to Medina, in order to heal the breach, and ■renew the truce : 'but in vain; for Mahomet refufed to fee him. Upon this he applied to Abu Beer, Ali, -Omar, and Fatima, to intercede with the prophet; but fome of them giving him rough anfwers, and others none at all, he was obliged to return to Mecca as he came. Mahomet gave orders to fet off immediately, and take the Meccans by furprife, who were by no means in a condition to receive them. As he drew near to Mecca, he fet up his ftandard, and advanced in order of battle to Mar A1 Dharan, where the whole army encamped. Here he o.Jered 10,000 fires to be lighted, and committed the defence of the camp to Omar, who- cut off all communication with the town, fo that the Meccans could receive no certain advice of their number. Among others that came from Mecca to recon¬ noitre the Mdflem camp, Abu Sofian, Hakenr Ebn Hezam, and Bodail Ebn Wafka, fell into Omar's hands ; and, being conduced to Mahomet, were obliged to embrace Maho- metanifm, in order to fave their lives.
The rumour of this expedition had not a little terrified the Koreifh, though they were not apprized that the pro¬ phet had refolved- upon a war ; but perceiving now, upon the report of Abu Sofian, who had been fent back to them, that the enemy was at their gates, they were thrown into the utmOfi: confiernation. Of this Mahomet refolved to take the advantage. He therefore firfi difpatched Hakem and Bodail to the -Meccans, inviting them to take an oath ' of -allegiance to him, *and become converts to his new •religion ; after which, he made the following difpofition of his forces : A1 Zobier was ordered to advance with a detachment rewards the town, on the fide of mount Cada. Saad Ebn Obad, prince of the tribe Kbazraj, marched with another detachment towards the height of Coda, which commands the plain of Mecca. Aii commanded the left •wing, confiding Of Anfars and Mohajerin. The prophet put into his hands the great ftandard of Mahometanifm, with orders to port himfelf upon mount A1 Hajun, and to plant the ftandard t-here ;■ ftrictly enjoining him not to ftir from thence till he himfelf arrived, and till a proper fignal fiiould be given him from Saad for that purpofe. Khaled led the right wing, confiding of the Arabs lately converted, with which he was to poffefs himfelf of the plain of Mecca. Abu Obeidah commanded in the centre, which confided ■entirely of infantry ; the prophet- himfelf-remained in the -rear, to difpatch his orders to the different generals, as occafion fiiould require. He exprefsly prohibited Khaled, .and all his other officers, to adt offenfively, unlefs they were firft attacked. Things, being thus prepared, the ar¬ my, upon the fignal given, put itlelf in motion. The prophet mounted lvis .camel with great alacrity, and was that day clothed -in fcarlet. A1 Zobier purfued the route affigned him without oppofition ; nor did Saad difeover the fainted traces of an enemy. Ali took poffeflion of his port: without the lofs of a -man ; and in like manner Abu Obei- dah foized on the fuburbs. Khaled, however, in his march to the plain, was attacked by a large body of Koreifh and their confederates, whom he defeated, putting twenty-eight ref them to the fword ; he purfued them into the town, and maflacred a great number of the inhabitants ; which fo terrified the reft, that the prophet foon- became mafter of the city, with the lofs only of two men. Mahomet made his public entry into it exactly at fim-rifing. When the firft tumult was- over, he went in procellion round the Caaba feven times, touching the corner of the black ftonq with, the wand in his hand, as often as lie palled it, with
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*.gr eat de votion. Thcn'he entered tlte Caaba; where, ob¬ serving Several idols in the form. of angels, and the ftatues of Abraham and IShmael, with the arrows of divination in their hands, he caufed them, all to be deftroyed. Af¬ terwards entering into the interior part of the Caaba, he ■repeated with a loud voice the form ufed at this day by the Mahometans, “ Allah A'kbar, God is great, dec.” turning "towards every part of the temple. Then he prayed be¬ tween the two pillars there, with two inclinations, as well as without the Caaba; faying to thofe that attended him, “ This is your Kebla, or the place towards which you are •4o turn your faces in prayer.”
Having- thus Subdued the KoreiSh, and .purged the Caabanf 3C0 idols, the prophet’s next care was to ingra- ■tiate himfelf with the people. Sending therefore for fome of the principal inhabitants, he alked them what kind of treatment they expeffed from him, now.he.had conquered them? To this-they replied, “ None but what is favour.- .able, O generous brother :” upon which hedifmirfeu them, faying, that from that moment they were a free people. He restored the keys of the Caaba to Othman Ebn Telha, who was in polfenion of them before ; and who w.as lb much atfefted.by this unexpected generofity, that he im¬ mediately became a profelyte. Next day the prophet de¬ clared Mecca an afylum for all who would embrace his .new religion; aad publicly declared that he would main¬ tain, to the utmod. of his power, the inviolable fecurity .of the place. He was then Solemnly inaugurated; after which he proscribed, accoi img to fome, fix men and four women, according to others, eleven men and one woman ; -but of thefe only three men and one woman were put to death; the reft being pardoned, on ■embracing'Mahoruet- .anifm.
The ninth year of the Hegira, being that of Gh ri,ffc.;6,3 1 , is called by the Mahometans the year of Embajjies ; - for ■ the Arabs, w ho- had waited tire ilfue of the war between Mahomet and the KoreiSh, no fooner.faw the prophet vic- ; torious, than they began to come in to him in great num- ’.bers, and fend embaflies to make their fubroHTions to' him, both while at Mecca and.after his return to Medina ; and thus good fortune continued without interruption to the year 632, when this famous impoftor breathed his laft, having reduced under his fubje&ion the whole peninfula of Arabia, and being ready to break into the neighbouring kingdoms in order to fatisfy his, ambition.
The death of Mahomet occasioned fuch a consternation in Mecca, that the- governor hid himfelf, fearing to be (tailed in question for his. former conduit ; and- the inha¬ bitants- confidered themfelves destitute of. all protection. •They now began to meditate,?, revolt ;. but were prevented l by Sohail Ebn Amru, a principal man of the KoreiSh. The (tumults of Medina, however, were not fo eafily appeafed. The news of this event was .no fooner puhlifhed there, rtlian a number of people affcmhled' before the prophet’s door, crying out, “How can our apoltle be dead ? Our intercelfor, our mediator, has not entirely left us ! He is taken up into heaven, as wasTfa (Jefus) ; therefore he Shall not be buried.” This was confirmed by Omar; who drew his fword, and fwore, that, if any perfon affirmed Mahomet to be dead, be would, cut off his hands and feet.
5‘ The apoftle of God (fays he) is not dead : he -is only gone for a feafon, as Mofes the fon of Amram was gone t from the people of Ifr.ael for forty days, and then returned to them again.” The populace therefore kept the body above ground, even after the belly began to fwell. Upon hearing of thefe tranfaflions, Abu Beer immediately poft- ■- ed from A1 Souah, and expoflulated with him in the fol¬ lowing manner : “ Do. you wovffiip Mahomet, or the God of Mahomet ? If the latter, lie Is immortal, and liveth -for ever ; but, if the former, you are in a manife ft error,
, for he is certainly dead.” The -truth of this allertion he immediately evinced from feveral palfages of the Ko¬ ran, in fo clear and conclufive a manner, that he not only Xatisfied Omar, but calmed the minds of the people.
The prophet having left- no directions. concerning a fi;c-
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celfor, very warm difputes arofe between the Mohajerin and. the Anfars about the right of electing a khalif. The former infilled on having that right, becaufe they had at¬ tended Mahomet in his flight to Medina ; and the others* becaufe they had fupported him when expelled from his native city, etc. In Short, the difputes Jaeca me fo violent, that a-n open rupture, muft have commenced, had not they -been terminated "by a propofal that each party Should clioofe a khalif. This , amuSed them for t lie prefe.nt ; but, not proving perfectly agreeable to the Mohajerin, Abu Beer propofed two perfbns, Omar .and Abu Obeidah, of¬ fering to fwear allegiance to him on whom tire Suffrages of both (liould fall. At length Omar voluntarily fwore fealty to Abu Beer, and, .bis example being-followed by all the’Moflems on the Spot, he was acknowledged both bv the Mohajerin and Anfars as the rightful fucceffor of Mahomet. Thefe tranfaCfions, however, were not re! idl¬ ed by Ali, who, as Ton-in-law to the prophet, had un¬ doubtedly the beft title to the fuccefficri. He expofculated with Abu Beer about the manner of his election, which had been effected without his knowledge-; .and received. for anfvver, that the exigence of affairs would not admit of de¬ liberation; and that, .had not the election been fo fudden, the opposite party would have wrefted the power entirely out of their hands. Ah was in Fatima’s apart ment when Abu Beer was eleCted khalif; and, upon the arrival of the news, expreffed great dillatisfaition. Ke found him¬ felf, however, obliged to Submit ; -for the new khalif fent Omar with Qxders to • burn the houfe where he and his friends were affenvbied, in.cafe-he did not. concur ip. Sup¬ porting the election.
Soon after Abu Beer’s aceeffion, many of the Arabs re¬ futed to pay the tribute impofed upon them by Mahomet, and even attempted to Shake off his yoke altogether. This fo alarmed the khalif and his fuhjeCts at Medina, that, fearing a general revolt, they fent all not able to bear arms into the. fa line lies of the rocks and mountains, and put themfelves in as.goed a pofture of defence. as the Short time would permit. In the mean time Khaied Was dif- p.atched with an army of 4500 men to reduce the. rebels.,; and foan coming up with them, gave them a total defeat,, brought off a-- y;afl quantity of plunder, antl-made many of their children Slaves. Nor was he content with this-;- for being fent by Abu Beer to Malec Ebn Noweirah, an eminent perfon among the Arabs, and famous for his Skill in poetry .as well as his horSernanfliip anti bravery, to bring him over by fair means, -he immediately ordered his head to be Struck off. By this means, indeed, he extinguished the feeds of rebellion ; hut. rendered himfelf exceedingly obnoxious to Abu Beer, who would have-put him to death, had .not Omar Strongly interceded for .him : for •Khateu had greatly exceeded his commission, as Malec had already returned to Mahometanifm. .About the fame time. another body of rebels committed great disorders in the province of Bahrein. A gain ft thefe Abu Beer dif- . patched A1 Ola . at the head of a conliderable army, wlip Toon obliged them to -return to Mahometanifm; having put great numbers to the fword, . and plundered their coun¬ try in a dreadful manner.
Abu Beer having now no enemy-to contend with in A- . rabia, .and being free from all apprehensions of a compe¬ titor, refolved to turn his arms againSt the Greek emperor. Someffiight Skirmishes had happened, in the lifetime of Ma¬ homet, between the Moflemsand Greek Christians; jn one -of which Zeid, a' Modem commander, bjad. been killed. To revenge his death, his fqr. Ofama was on the point of making an irruption into Syria at the time of Mahomet’S dcceafe. This enterpr.ife the khalif encouraged him to go on with ; and it was executed by Ofama with great fuc- cefs. The khalif next font Khaledat the head of a power¬ ful army to invade Irak, and put an end to the kingdom of Hira. In this alfo he was attended with Iris ufual fuc- cefs. The king A1 Mondar A1 Maghrur loft his life in defence of his dominions ; and the kingdom was totally dellroyedj after it had existed C?.2 years and eight months.
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t
The inhabitants became' tributaries ; and, according to Eutychius, the tribute collected on this occafion amounted to 7)0,000 pieces of money. This, according to A1 Ma* liin, was thofirft tribute-money ever brought to Medina.
The exigence of the khalif’s affairs, however, did not fiiffer Khaled long to remain in Irak. Before the depar¬ ture of the army under his command, Abu Beer had come to a refolution to invade Syria; and-, finding Ms defign ap¬ proved by the principal officers of his court, he lent cir¬ cular letters to the petty princes- of Yaman, tire chief men of Mecca, &c. informing them of his intention to take Syria out of- the- hands of the infidels ; acquainting them* at the fame time, that a war for tlie propagation of the true religion was- an aft of obedience to God. To thefe letters they paid a- proper regard ; and in a very fhort time they all appeared at Medina at the head of their refpec- tive troops, and pitched their tents round the city. Here they (laid till the Modem army deftined to aft againft Sy¬ ria was completely formed, and in a capacity to begin its. march. The khalif having viewed the troops from the top of an hill,- and prayed to God for fuccefs, attended- the generals- fame way on foot. As the generals vs ere on liorfeback, they could not forbear exprelTing t heir uneafi- nefs at the khalifs- thus demeaning himlelf; but he told them, that it- dignified little whether they \\ aiked on foot¬ er rode,- as they had all the fame views, viz. the fervice of God, and the propagation of' religion. At parting, he addreffed Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, w ho had the fupreme command, in the following manner: “ Take care,- Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, to treat your men v\ ith tendernefs and- lenity. Confult with your officers on all prefling occafions, and encourage them to face the enemy with bravery and refolution. If you fiiull happen to be viftorioits, deftroy neither old people, women, nor children. Cut down no palm-trees, nor burn any fields' of corn: Spare all fruit- trees, and flay no cattle but fuuli as you fltall take for your own life. Adhere always inviolably- to your engagements,, and put none of the religious perfons you Avail meet with¬ in monafteries to the fwovd . -Offer no violence to the places they ferve God in,- As for tliofe members of the fyna- gogues of Satan who fiave their crowns , cleave their fkulls,- and give them no quarter, except they embrace Iflamifnv (Mahometanifm), or pay tribute.”
Heraclius, the Greek emperor, was greatly alarmed at the approach of the Modem army ; however, he made all neceliary preparations for his defence,- and lent out a de¬ tachment to reconnoitre the enemy. Thefe having fallen in with the Arabs, a battle enfued, in which the Greeks were defeated witli the lofs of 1200 men, while the Arabs loft only 120. This was fucceeded by a great many (kir¬ n-fifties, in which the Modems were generally victorious. The rich fpoils taken on thefe occafions were fent as a pre- fent to the khalif ; who, having acquainted the inhabitants of Mecca Vvith his good fuccefs, they were fb elated, that they furnifhed him with a ftrong reinforcement, which was immediately ordered into Syria, Khaled’s next exploit was the reduction of Bofira, a very rich and populous city of Syria Damafcena. Having left a garrifon of 400 men in Boftra, and being joined by Abu Obeidah’s forces, he laid fiege to Damafcus with an army of 45,000 men. This fo alarmed the emperor, that he difpatched 100,000 cho- fen troops commanded by one Werdan, to the relief of that city. Khaled, 01V hearing of the approach of this formidable army, was for marching immediately with all his forces, and giving them battle ; but this was oppofed by Obeidali, as i-t would enable the inhabitants of Damaf¬ cus to procure frefh fupplies both of arms and providons, and confequently render the reduction of the place more difficult. It was, therefore, agreed, that a body of troops jfliould be detached under Derar Ebn A1 Wazar, an ex¬ cellent officer, to fight the enemy, whilft the fiege was .carried on by the two generals.
Rivaled, fearing left Derar’s furious- zeal and hatred to the Greek Chriftians ffiould prove fatal to his tr.oops, told iUu before his departure, that, though they were com¬
manded to fight for the propagation of their religion, yet* they were not allowed to throwaway the lives of tlveis" men ; and therefore ordered him to retire to the main body; of the army, in cafe he found himfelf preffed by a fupe- rior force. But Derar, deaf' to his falufary admonition,, with his fmall body of troops ru fifed upon the whole Chri- ftian army, notwithfianding the vaft di (proportion of num¬ bers. He charged them, how ever, with fuch bravery, that he penetrated to the fpot where the general ’ gave his orders, killed tlie ftandard- bearer, and carried off the ftandard it- felf,. in which was a- crofs richly adorned with precious (tones. Nay, he would’ in all probability have put Wer-. dan’s army to flight;, hadmot the general’s (on, the com¬ mandant of Hems, arrived in the heat of the engagement with a reinforcement of 10,000 men ; with which he at¬ tacked the Modems fo brifkly in the rear, that he forced’ them to retire, and took Derar himfelf prifoner. This- fo difeouraged the Modems, that they would have taken- to their heels, had not Raft Ebn Omerrah animated them with the following words : “ What! do not you know,,
that whoever turns his back upon bis enemies offends God and his prophet ? and that the propliet declared tlie gates of paradife fliould be open to none but fuch as fought for religion ? Come on! I will go before you. If your cap¬ tain be dead, or taken prifoner, yet your God is alive, and fees what you do.” This exhortation had tlie defired ef- feft ; and, liis troops,, returning to tlie charge, maintained their ground with unparalleled bravery, till Klialed arrived with a conftderable body of infantry, and kooo horfe. This event turned the fortune of tlie day. A party of the imperial army went' over to the Modems, and the reft were, defeated. Derar was alfo retaken, and carried off in tri¬ umph. However, Werdan, having collefted the (battered remains of his forces, and received a reinforcement from the emperor, found his army dill amounted to 70,000 men, with which he refolved to- make another (land for the relief of Damafcus. They- were attended with (till worfe fuccefs in this fecond attempt than they had been, before ; being utterly defeated with the lofs of 50,000 men, in confequence of which tlie city furrendered. This- event happened in the year 63.4; and the very day that Damafcus was taken, Abu Beer died of a confumption, m the 63d year of his age. He was fucceeded by Omar,gand‘ the firft titleaffigned liimwas, The khalif of the khalif of the apofle of God. But the Arabs, conddering, that by the additions to be continually made at the acceflion of every new khalif, the title would become too long, they with, one voice fainted him Emperor of the believers ; which here¬ ditary title defeended afterwards to his fucceffors by a kind of right.
The new khalif was no fooner fettled,, than lie placed Abu Obeidali in tlie chief command of the army of Syria, being greatly difpleafed with the fanguinary difpofition of Klialed. He alfo commanded Abu Obeidah to have an eye upon Paleftine, and to invade it as foon as opportu¬ nity oftered. Khaled bore his difgrace with great magna, nimity : and fwore, that though he always had the greateft regard for Abu Beer, and the utmoft- averfion to Omar, yet he would fubmit to God’s will, and obey the new kha, lif as' the lawful fucced’or of Mahomet. The Modem forces in the mean time, having made proper difpofitions. for improving the advantages they had gained, Abu Obei¬ dah font a detachment of 500 horfe to ' Dair Abil Kodos, a- bout 30 miles from Damafcus, to plunder the Chriftians there. He next fet about reducing the principal fortreftes in Syria, and foon became mafter of Kinnifrin, Baalbec, Adefian, Shaizar, and Hems ; on the news of which, the Greek emperor Heraclius, refolving if podible to putaftop to the unprovoked ravages of the Modems, fent againff them an army of 240,000 men, commanded by one Ma- ntrel, whom the Arabs call Mahan. But this vaft multi¬ tude was utterly defeated by Khaled ; upon whom Abu Obeidah conferred the fupreme command, on account of his fuperior (kill in military affairs. This battle was fought near a village called Ycrmouk ; and, according to the Ara¬ bia^
A R A
bian hldorians, the Chridians had 150,000 men killed and 40,000 taken prifoners, while the Mollems loft no more than 4030.
The defeat at Yermonk was immediately followed by the lofs of the whole province of Paledine. The reduc¬ tion of Jerufalem was one of its fil'd confequences ; and Omar, being apprifed of the fuccefs of his arms, imme¬ diately fet out to vilit that holy place, at the requed, it is faid, of the inhabitants. The khalif was attended in his journey by a numerous retinue. He rode upon a red ca¬ mel, and carried with him two facks of provifion and fruits. Before him he had a leather bottle, very neeeflary in thefe defer t countries to put water in ; and behind him a w’ooden platter. Before he left the place where he relied, he condantly faid the morning prayer; after which head- dreffed himfelf to his attendants in a devout drain, utter¬ ing fome pious ejaculations. Then he communicated his provifion to them ; every one of his fellow-travellers eating with him out of the fame platter, without the lead didinftion. His clothes were made of camel’s hair, and were in a very tat¬ tered condition; nor could any thing be more mean or for¬ did than the figure he made. On the road he adminidered judice among his fubjefts : concerning which we have fe- veral anecdotes ; but that mod to his honour is the fol¬ lowing: Having obferved fome poor tributaries expofed to the heat of the fun, a very cruel punifliment in thofe hot countries, for not being able to pay the fum demanded of them, he ordered them to be releafed ; telling his at¬ tendants, that he once heard the apodleof God fay, “ Do not afflift men in this world ; for thofe who do l'o, God Thall punifii in hell-fire at the day of judgment.” His or¬ ders were immediately executed, to the great grief of the opprcflbrs ; and the khalif continued his route. On the confines of Syria he was met by Aub Obeidab attended by anefcort, who condudted him to the Modem camp, where he was received with the utmod demonllrations of joy ; and from thence to Jerufalem. The morning after his ar¬ rival, he laid prayers and preached to the troops. After the conclufion of his fermon, he pitched his tent within fight of the city : then he figned the articles of capitula¬ tion ; by which the inhabitants were intitled to the free exercife of their religion, the polfellion of their property, and of his protedlion.
Before the khalif left Syria, he divided that country into two parts ; one of which, that lay between Hauran and Aleppo, he committed to the care of Abu Obeidah, giving him the drifted: orders to reduce it as foon as pof- lible. Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian was commanded to take upon him the care of the other, which comprehended Paledine, and the fea-coad, and to make himfelf abfolute maderof it, having a body of troops aiTigned him for that purpofe. He alfo direfted Amrii Ebn A1 As to invade Egypt, then in a very languilhing condition. After having made thefe difpolitions for extending his conqueds, he fet out for Medina, where he arrived in perfeft health, to the great joy of the inhabitants.
Soon after Omar’s departure, Yezid advanced to Crefa- farea ; but found the place fo drong, that he was obliged to continue fome time in a date of inaftion. Abu Obei¬ dah, in the mean time, advanced towards Aleppo, the ci¬ tadel of which was at that time the dronged in Syria. The citizens were druck with the utmod condernation at his approach. They had at that time two governors, who were brothers, and relided in the cadle, at a little didance from the city. The names of thefe two governors, who were of very dift'crent difpofitions, were Youkinna, and John. Their father, by the emperor Heraclius’s appoint¬ ment, prelided over all that traft which lay betwixt A- leppo and the Euphrates ; and, after his death, the chief management of affairs devolved upon Youkinna, his bro¬ ther John fpending his time modly in devotion and afts of piety. He would therefore gladly have prevailed on You¬ kinna to purchafe a peace from the Arabs with money, rather than make his country a fcene of blood and rapine; but this not fuiting the martial genius of Youkinruu he
Vol. II. No. 54.
B I A. 9
armed a confiderable number of the citizens, and didri- buted money among them. He then told his men that he intended to aft offenfively againd the Arabs, and even to engage them if poflible before tiiey drew near. Having animated his troops, he put himfelf at the head of 12,000 of them, and marched forwards to get intelligence of the enemy’s motions. Abu Obeidah, in the mean time, had font before him Caab Ebn Damarali, with icoo men; gi¬ ving him exprefs orders not to fight till he had received information of the enemy. Youkinna’s fpies’difeovered Caab and his” men reding them felves and watering their horfes without the lead apprehendon of danger; of which Youkinna being apprifed, he placed one part of his troops in ambufeade, and with the other attacked the Modems. The A.rabs behaved with their ufual valour; and at fird repulfed the Chridians, notwithdanding their fuperiority in numbers : but, being attacked by the troops that lay in ambudi, they were forced to retire; having ryokilled, and almod all the reft wounded.
After Youkinna’s departure, the inhabitants of Alep¬ po, confidering tire calamities that awaited them if their city fhould be taken by dorm, fubmitted without delay to Abu Obeidah, and were taken under the proteftion of the khalif. This being communicated to Youkinna, he re¬ turned home with all pofiible expedition, led an attempt fhould be made on the cadle. in his abfence. On his ar¬ rival at Aleppo, he was fo incenfed againd the inhabi¬ tants, that he threatened them With death if they did not difannul the treaty with the Arabs, and deliver up the authors of it into his hands. This demand not being com¬ plied with, he fell upon the citizens with great fury, and killed 300 of them; among whom was his brother John, whole head he cauled to be druck off, charging him with being the author and abettor of the late pernicious fcheme. He would have made a much greater daughter, had not the Modem army at that indant arrived before the town ; upon which Youkinna retired into the cadle with a confi¬ derable body of troops: but, before this could be effefted, he was obliged to fudain an attack from the Arabs, in which he lod 3000 men. The aftion was no fooner end¬ ed than the inhabitants of Aleppo brought out 40 of You¬ kinna’s men, and as a proof of their fidelity delivered them into Abu Obeidah’s hands. Of thefe, feven embraced Ma- hometanifm, and the red were beheaded.
Abu Obeidah now inveded the citadel ; and, having fur- rounded it with all his forces, made a mod vigorous af- fault. The befieged defended themfelves with great bra¬ very, and after a very warm difpute drove the enemy back to their camp. This encouraged Youkinna to make a dally the following night. The fires being then out in the Modem camp, and the bedegers not expefting fitch an unfeafonable vilit, 60 of them were killed on the fpot, and 50 taken prifoners. Youkinna, however, being brilk- ly attacked by Khaled, who foon drew together a body of troops to purfue him, lod about 100 men in his retreat. The next day, Youkinna caufed the prifoners to be be¬ headed in fight of the Modem camp ; and, receiving ad¬ vice that a drong party of Arabian cavalry was fent out to forage, lie ordered a body of his horfe to attack them; which they accordingly did, killed 130, feized all -their ca¬ mels, horfes, &c. and then retired to the mountains. Here they propofed to remain concealed till the following night, and then return to the cadle ; but Abu Obeidah detached Khaled and Derar with a body of troops to purfue the Greeks, and revenge the late affront. Khaled, being in¬ formed of the route the Chridians had taken, poUefTed himfelf of the only pafs by which they could return ; and, having poded there a party of his men, they took 300 of the Greeks prifoners, and put all the red to the fword. The next morning, to retaliate Youkinna’s cruelty, the prifon¬ ers were all brought out and beheaded in fight of the gar- rifon. Notwithdanding this difader, Youkinna made Se¬ veral fallies, wherein he killed a great number of the Mof- lerns, and haraffed them to fitch a degree, that Abu Obei¬ dah found himfelf obliged. to remove his camp to a greater D diilance
IO
ARABIA,
diilance from the caftle; by which manoeuvre he likewifc hoped that Youkinna would be lei's upon hisgivard. Herein, however, lie was niillaken: for the Greek commander, by the prudent mea hire's he took, eluded all furprife; and, though Abu Obeidah continued th.e liege for four months, he had no hopes of making himfelf mailer of it until a reinforcement arrived.
Among the troops fent by Omar on this occafion, there was an Arab of a gigantic fize, called Dames , who was a man of great courage and refolution. Obferving the little progrefs made in the fiege, he bethought himfelf of a fira- tagem by which the fortrefs might be taken. He there¬ fore delired Abu Obeidah would aflign him a party con¬ fiding only of thirty men; which at Khaled’s requeft was readily granted. Then he begged the general to raife the fiege, and retire about three miles from the cadle, which was Iikewife complied with. The following night Dames, who had polled himfelf with his party very near the cita¬ del, found means to feize a Greek, from whom he learned that Youkinna, after the fiege was raifed, had exadted large Aims of money from the citizens, on account of the treaty they had concluded with the Arabs; and that he was one of thole who had endeavoured to make their efcape from the oppreffion of fitch a tyrant, by leaping down from the wall. This man Dames took under his protection ; but beheaded five or fix others who fell into his hands, and could give no account of themfelves. He then -covered his head and lhoulders with a goat’s Ikin, and took a dry cruft in his hand, creeping on the ground till he got dole to the foot of the wall. If he heard any noife, or fuf- peCled any perlon to be near, he made a noife with his cruft like a dog gnawing a bone ; his companions fometimes walking, and fometimes creeping after him in the fame manner. He had before difpatched two of his men to Abu Obeidah, to defire that a detachment of horfe might be fent him by break of day to fupport his fmall party, and facilitate the execution of the plan he had formed. At laft Dames found an opportunity of railing feven men upon his lhoulders, who ftood one upon another till the higheft reached the top of the wall. Here he feized a watchman whom he found alleep, and threw him over the wall. Two others, whom he found in the fame condition, he (tabbed with his dagger, and threw them over Iikewife. Then he let down his turban, and drew up the fecond of his breth¬ ren, as they two did the third, and by their help Dames himfelf and all the reft were enabled to mount the wall. He then privately ftabbed the centry at each of the gates, and put his men in poffeffion of every one of them. The foldiers of the garrifon, however, were at laft alarmed, and furrounded the Arabs, who were on the point of pe- rilhing,, when Khaled appeared at the head of a detach¬ ment of cavalry. On light of that general, who had long been terrible to the Chriftians, the befieged threw down their arms and fur rendered at difcretion. Youkinna, and lome of the principal officers, turned Mahometans, in or¬ der to lave their lives ; and the cable, being taken by ftorm, was pillaged by the Mollems. Dames acquired great glory by this exploit ; and, out of complaifance to him, the army did not depart from Aleppo till he and his men were cured of their wounds.
After the redudijon of the citadel of Aleppo, Abu Obeidah intended to march to Antioch ; but was diverted by Youkinna, who was now become a violent enemy to the Chriftians. He told the Mollem general, that his con- queft of that part of the country would be incomplete with¬ out taking Azaz, a place of great importance, where Theo- dorus, Youkinna’s coufin-german, was commandant. This fortrefs he propofed to become mailer of, by putting him- felf at the head of ioo Arab horfe dreffed in the Greek habit, who were to attend him to Azaz. Upon his arrival there, he was to allure Theodorus that he was (till in rea¬ lity a Chriftian, and had taken that opportunity to efcape from the Modem camp. But, to make his dory more probable, Abu Obeidah was to lend after hint a detach¬ ment of iooo horfe, who were to pur Ate him as far as
Morah, a village in the neighbourhood of Azaz, with orders to port themfelves there ; from whence, if fuch a meafure fttould be necedary, they might eafily advance to Azaz, to facilitate the conqueft of that place. To this fcheme Abu Obeidah agreed; but Youkinna, with all his men, were immediately taken priioners by Theodorus, who bad been informed of the whole affair by a fpy in the Modem camp. The fortrefs, however, was loon reduced, and Youkinna regained his liberty; but was foon after ta¬ ken prifoner a fecond time, and brought before Heraclius, who then redded at Antioch. He told the emperor, that he had only pretended to embrace Mahometanilm, with a view to do his imperial majefty the more effential fervice ; and fo far gained upon him, that he was foon after appointed, governor of that city ; the confequence of which was, that the Arabs were put in poffeffion of it by his treachery.
On th.e redudlion of Antioch, Abu Obeidah fent an ac¬ count of his fuccefs to Omar; and, receiving an order to invade the mountainous parts of Syria, he alked his gene¬ ral officers which of them would command the body of troops deftined for that purpofe. Meifarah Ebn Mefrouk having offered his fervice, the general gave him a black ftandard, with the following infcription, in white letters :
“ There is but one God ; Mahomet is the apoftle of God.” The troops alligned him for this purpofe confifted of 300 Arabs, and 1000 black daves, commanded by Dames. Meifarah, at the head of this little army, with fonte diffi¬ culty afcended the mountains, and, with much more, ad¬ vanced to that part where the emperor’s forces were ported. For forne time they could not meet with a lingle perlon to give them the fmalleft intelligence of the enemy’s num¬ ber; but at laft they took a Greek prifoner, who informed them, that the imperial army confifted of 30,000 men. The prifoner refilling to profefs Mahometanilm, they cut off his head, and then marched towards the imperial camp. The Greeks, hearing of their approach, advanced to meet them ; and the Modems, being furrounded on all Tides, were on the point of being all cut off, when Khaled appeared at the head of 3000 horfe, and after him Ayab Ebn Ga- nem with 2000 more. At the approach of the horfe under the command of the terrible Khaled, the Greeks retired, leaving all their tents, with their rich furniture and effects, to the Arabs. In this engagement, one of Omar’s fa¬ vourites, named Abdallah Ebn Hodafa, was taken prifoner, and fent diredtly to Conftantinople. The khalif was fo much concerned at this, that he lent to Heraclius, deliring his releafe ; which the emperor not only complied with, but made him many valuable prefents, lending at the fame time a jewel of immenfe value as a prefent to the khalif. This Omar offered to the jewellers of Medina, but they were ignorant of its value: the Mulleins therefore begged him to keep it for his own life; but this he faid he could not be anfwerable for to the public. It was therefore fold, and the money depofited in the public treafury.
After this Khaled advanced with a body of troops as far as the Euphrates, and took Manbij, Beraa, Bales or Balis, exacting of the inhabitants 100,000 dinars for their pre¬ fent fecurity, and impofing on them an annual tribute for the future. He alfo made himfelf matter of Raaban, Du- louc, Korus, the Cyrus or Cyrrhus of the ancients, and feveral other fortified towns. Arnru Ebn A1 As now like- wife prepared for reducing fome places in Paleltine that Kill held out. While he remained in this province, he had a conference with Conftantine, the emperor’s fon, who endeavoured to perfuade him to make peace with the Chriftians; but this he would not agree to, unlefs they would confent to pay tribute ; all hopes of an accommo¬ dation vanilhed, and the generals on both iides prepared for adlion.
The two armies however did not come to a general en¬ gagement, yet they had frequent (kirmilhes, in which the Arabs always got the better, and in fome the Greeks buf¬ fered very conliderably. This, together with the feverity 6f the feafon, fo dejected the foldiery, that they began to defert in great numbers., Conftantine, therefore, finding
his
1 It
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Pits troops diminifh daily, and the Arabs to grow ftronger and ftronger, took the advantage of a. temp.eftuous night to efcape to Csefarea. This city was foon after inverted by Amru ; and, in the mean time, Youkinna, having made himfelf mafter of Tripoli by treachery, feized fifty (hips from Cyprus and Crete, which carried a fupply-of arms and provifions for the emperor’s troops, and had entered the port without knowing that the Arabs were mafters of the town. With thefe (hips he undertook an expedition again ft Tyre; and, telling the inhabitants that he brought a fupply of arms and provifions for Conftar.tine’s army, he was received with great kindnefs. Here he had not been long, before he was betrayed by one of his own foldiers, and put under arreft, with 900 of his men. He was how¬ ever fet at liberty by thofe to whof’e care he was commit¬ ted ; and he then opened the gates of the city to Yezid, by whom it was inverted. Conftantine, having got intelligence at Csefarea of the lofs of Tripoli and Tyre, was Co difheart- ened, that lie fet fail from that city with all his family and the greateft part of his wealth ; upon which the citizens made the beft terms they poftibly could with Amru. The furrender of Ctefarea was followed by that of all the other cities and fortreires in the province ; and thus the Arabs drove the Greeks out of the whole country of Syria, ex¬ tending from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates. This conqueft was completed in the 18th year of the Hegira, and in fix years after it had been undertaken.
There now happened fuch violent ftorms of hail in the peninfula'of the Arabs, that a confiderable extent of ter¬ ritory was laid wafte, and a great number of animals of various kinds deftroyed. An epidemical diftemper like- wife raged at Medina, which fpread all over the neigh¬ bouring territory, and fwept away great numbers of people. Syria alio was vilited by a dreadful plague ; fo that the Modems loft there 25,000 men, among whom were Abu Obeidah himfelf, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, Serjabil, and many’other perfons of diftindfion. In fhort, fo great was the mortality occafioned by the plague, both in Arabia and Syria, that the Arabs ftyie t-he iSth year of the Hegira the year of deJiruElion.
Amru Ebn A1 As, having thus executed the khalif’s orders in Syria, fet out on his expedition .againft Egypt. His firft attempt was on Tarma, a town fituated on the ifthmus of Suez. This he reduced after a month’s fiege; and, having viewed its fituation, he formed a defign of cut¬ ting through the ifthmus, and uniting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea : but this projedt was not relifhed by the khalif, who thought it might facilitate the entrance of the Chriftians into the peninfula of Arabia. From Tarma he marched to Mefr, the Memphis of the ancient geogra¬ phers ; which, after a fiege of feven months, was delivered up to him by the treachery of Al Mokav kas the governor. From Mefr he continued his march towards Alexandria, and, having defeated the emperor’s troops, he clofely in¬ verted that city. While his army lay before this capital, Amru himfelf had the misfortune to be taken prifoner and carried into the town. Being brought before the governor, lie afked him why he committed fuch ravages and depre¬ dations in the Chriftian territories 1 To this Amru boldly anfwered, “ We are come to oblige you either to profefs Mahontetanifm, or pay tribute to the khalif ; to one of which conditionsyou mtift fubmit, or be put to the fword.”
A Greek, who (food by, told the governor that Amru was certainly the Modem general, and therefore defirecl him to ftrikeoffhis head. The governor, however, not only faved his life, but, to (hew his generofity, difmiffed him without ranfom. This was foon followed by the lofs of Alexan¬ dria, and by the conqueft of the whole kingdom: after which, Amru difpatched Okba Ebn Nafe with a body of troops to penetrate farther into Africa; where he made himfelf mafter of all the country lying between Barka and Zoweilah, reducing alfo that part of the continent which now forms the piratical kingdom of Tripoli.
While the Arabs thus extended their conquefts in the . weft, they were no lefs fuccefsful in the eaft. We have
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already noticed Khaled's having been fent into Irak to re¬ duce the kingdom of Hira, and of his being recalled to aflift in the conqueft of Syria. As the kings of Hira were tributaries of the Perfian monarchs, t lie deftrudtion of them neceffarily brought on a war with the Perfians. After the departure of Khaled, the command of the forces was di¬ vided between Abu Obeid Ebn Madid, Ail Mothanna Ebn Haretha, Amru Ebn Hafem, and Salit Ebn Kis. Abu- Obeid having palled a river contrary to the advice of the other generals, was killed, and his troops in great danger; however, Al Mothanna made an excellent retreat, and re¬ paired the river without any confiderable lofs. After this he fortified himfelf in his camp till he received a confide¬ rable reinforcement from the khalif; when the Modem army marched to Dir Hind, and thence continued to make frequent excurfions, ravaging that part of Irak that lay next to the Euphrates. A body of 12,000. Perfian horde' was now difpatched againft the Modems, under the com¬ mand of Mahran. At firft the Perfians had the advantage, and obliged the Arabs to retire ; but they were foon rallied by Al Mothannah, and the battle lufted from noon till fun-fet. Al Mothannah, engaging Mahran in fingle com¬ bat, laid him dead at his feet; upon which the Perfians fled. After this a powerful army was difpatched by the Perfians under the command of Ruftaim; but he alfo was killed, and his troops were entirely difperfed. At the fame time, Abu Mufa, another Modem general, defeated a formidable body of troops under the command of Al Harzaman, a noble Perfian, at Ahwaz. The khalif alfo difpatched Saad Ebn Abu Wakkas, to didodge the Perfians from fome diftridts they poffelfed in the neighbourhood of the' Euphrates. Saad, having 12,000 men, advanced to to Kadefia, a city bordering upon the deferts of Irak, where he defeated an army of 120,000 Perfians, and made him¬ felf mafter of the opulent city of Al Madayen; which was fo rich, if we may credit the Arabian writers, that Saad' took out of it three thoufand millions of dinars, amounting to two thoufand and twenty-five millions of pounds fter- ling; an enormous and aimoft incredible'fum.
In the twentieth or twenty-firft year of the Hegira the Arabs invaded Mefopotamia, under Aiyad Ebn Ganem; and the city of EdelTa fnbmitted on the firft fummons.. From Edeffa he marched to Confiantia, fuppofed to be the Nicephoriurn of the ancients. This he took by ftorm, as likewife Daras, where lie maftacred all the people ; which fo terrified the reft of the fortified towns, that they fub- mitted without refiftance. At the fame time Al Mogheirah Ebn Shaabah, one of the khalif’s generals, made himfelf mafter of Shiz, a place famous for the birth of Zerduftit: the Perfian philofopher; and he over-ran the. whole pro¬ vince of Aderbijan. He likewife poffeffed himfelf of all the country of Armenia bordering on mount Taurus ; and even penetrated into Cappadocia. Saad alfo made himfelf. mafter of Ahwas, the capital of Khuzeftan (the ancient Sufiana) ; at the fame time that Al Nooman conquered the greateft part of Khorafan. But, while Omar’s troops were thus irrefiftibly over-running the fineft countries in the world, a period w;as put to his conquefts and his life, by a Perfian named Abu Lulua, who ftabbed him thrice in the belly while he was performing his devotions at Medina, Idle reafon of this was faid to be, becaufe the khalif re¬ futed to remit fome part of the tribute, which, according to the Mahometan cuftom, he was obliged to pay for the free exercife of his religion. The Arabs, perceiving that he had mor ally wounded their fovereign, immediately rufhed upon him ; but the aflaflin defended himfelf fo def- perately, that he killed feven of them, and wounded thir¬ teen ; he then ftabbed himfelf, and expired. Ontarian- gitifhed three days of his wounds, and died in the-xith or 1 2th year of his reign, and after his death Othman Ebn Affan v'as chofen ; though Ali had a better title, and feems to have been the moft virtuous and braveft warrior among them. Fie was inaugurated in the 24th year of the He¬ gira, coincident with the year 645 of the Chriftian era.
Othman was no fooner fettled on the throne, than he 3 ordered.
12
in
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ordered A1 Mogheirali to complete the conqueft of Hama- dan; which lie eafily accohiplifhed, and at the fame time reduced Bira, a flrong cattle in Mefopotamia, which either had never fubmitted, or had revolted on the departure of the Mo II era troops from that province. Another army, under Abdallah Ebn Amar, was alfo difpatched into Perfia, to deprive Yezdejerd, the Perfian monarch, of the poor remains of his dominions ; and this was done fo.eftedtually, that he was obliged to fly to Sijeftan, and abandon Perfia altogether.
In the 27th year of the Hegira, the if! and of Cyprus was reduced by Moawiyalr; who toon after conquered the island of Aradus, and took Ancyra ; after which l>e re¬ duced Rhodes, broke in pieces the famous Coloffus, and fold the'metal.of it to a Jew of EdefTa. In the mean time another of the Arab commanders entered Ifauria, where he committed dreadful depredations, plundered many towns and villages, put a great number of people to the fword, and carried off 5000 prifoners. In the 31 (I year of the Hegira, the Moflent general Habib made an irruption into that part of Armenia which was ftill unconquered, defeated a body of the emperor’s troops, purfuing them as far as mount Caucafus, and laying wafle all the neighbouring territory. About the fame time alfo, Abul Abar, who had been conftituted admiral by Moavviyah, gave the em¬ peror Conftans a fignal defeat at fea, on the coaft of Lycia, in which fuch a number of Chriftians were killed, that the fea was dyed with their blood.
But, while Othrnan was thus carrying every thing before him abroad, he neglected to fecure the affections of his fubjeCts at home, which foon proved his ruin. Sedition was induftrioufly propagated through all the provinces of the empire, and articles of accufation were brought againft him. The chief of thefe were, That he had recalled one who had been banifited by the prophet ; that he had re¬ moved Saad, an officer of diftinguifhed bravery, and fup- pi.ed his place by one who drank wine, and was othenvife of a fcandalous life; that he had fquandered away vafi: loots among his favourites; that he had removed Antru from the government of Egypt, to which he had preferred Iris own fofter-brother; and, laftly, that he had prefumed to fit on the top of Mahomet’s pulpit, whereas Abu Beer had always fat on the higheft fiep and Omar on the lovveft. To thefe accufations the khalif pleaded guilty, and pro- inifed to majee all the reparation in his power; but his condefcenfion only ferved to increafe the infolence of the rebels. They were however appeafed by Ali ; and public tranquillity would have been reltored, had it not been for Ayelha, one of Mahomet’s widows, who procured the de- ftruftion of the khalif by the following ficheme. Being defirous of railing one of her favourites, named Tclha, to the dignity of khalif, fiie prevailed on Merwan, the fecre- tary of fiate, to write a letter to the prefect of Egypt, en¬ joining him to put to deatli Mahomet Ebn Abu Beer, by whom it was fent, and who, it was pretended, was to be his l'ucceffor. This letter Merwan took care fhould be difeovered : and Mahomet, taking it for a genuine order of the khalif, publifhed the fuppofed injury all over the neighbouring countries. He then marched with a body of rebels to Medina, where the innocent khalif . was befieged iii his palace ; and, notwithfianding all his proteftations, nothing lefs than his deaUi could fatisfy the enraged mul- • titude. In this fituation Othrnan fent to Ali for alii fiance ; •who commanded his two foils Hafan and Hoi'ein to defend the palace-gates. This they did for fome time with great bravery, till, finding the khalif famifiiing for want, they abandoned their pofts ; upon which the rebels made them- felves mafters of the palace, and murdered Othrnan, in the S2d year of his age, after he had reigned twelve years. His body remained three days unburied ; and was at laft thrown into a hole, without the leafi funeral folemnity .
The arms of the Modems had hitherto been fo fuccefsful, and their conquefis fo rapid, as not only to have vied with Alexander, but to have bid fairer for univerlal monarchy Mhaii any nation either before or fince. The ruin of mighty
B I A.
empires generally originates from the impoffibility of keep¬ ing them united. Divifions arife ; civil wars break out; and, the kingdom being weakened by intefiine feuds, the common enemy takes advantage of them to ruin the whole fabric. If we confider Mahomet, as in truth he was, not an enthuliafi, but a politician, and the founder of an em¬ pire ; we lhall find him in that capacity fuperior perhaps to any that ever exifted. The empire of Alexander the Great, which arofe with (till more rapidity than that of the Arabs, had no fupport but from his own ambition and perfonal qualifications. While he lived, he was without a rival, becaufe all were afraid of him ; but, when he died, the bands ot union, whereby his empire had been held together, were immediately diffolved. His captains were not infpi- red with the fame veneration for his fon, who was unborn at the time of his death, that they had for the lather; and therefore they fought not to conquer for him, but for them- I'elves ; and the confequence was, that the kingdom fell to pieces the moment he died.. The fame thing happened to Jenghiz Khan, Tamerlane, and others, who made vafi con¬ quefis in a fiiort time. They erected mighty kingdoms indeed; but their duration was but momentary. The em¬ pire ot the Romans was founded on a kind of enthuliaftic defire of aggrandizing the city of Rome : patriotifm be¬ came fafhionable ; and, as the city never ceafed to exift, tbofe who conquered always had the fame end in view, namely, to exalt the republic more and more. This em¬ pire, therefore, was not only very extenfive, but very du¬ rable ; though, as it was impoffible that mankind could always continue to venerate a city, the fame divifions that ruined other fiates at lafi brought this to an end. The foundation of Mahomet’s empire feemed to be fiill more firm. He was not only the king, but, we may fay, the god, of his people. Whatever enthufiafm heroes may fiiew in defending their country, experience has taught us, that it is greatly inferior to what is manifefied by thole who fight in defence of religion. This enthufiafm Mahomet had ta¬ ken care not only to bring over to his fide, but to exalt to its highefi pitch, by inculcating upon his followers, that their rewards in the next world Ihould be proportionable to the fury with w-hich they fought in this. To live at peace, except with thofe who fubmitted to his will, did not at all enter into his plan; and he who made no con¬ quefis, or at leafi did not firive to make them, was no true believer. By this means, let his dominion be ever fo much extended, the temptation to making frefh conquefis was fiill equally ftrong : and not only the commanders of ar¬ mies, but every private perfon, had the moft powerful motives to urge him towards the conquefi of the whole world, had that been poflible. The only thing Mahomet feems to have failed in was, the appointment of the fuc- ceffion to the apoftlefiiip ; and why he was deficient in this is inconceivable. From this fatal omifiion proceeded the divifions which ruined his empire before it was fcarcely erected, and of which we are now to give the hiftory.
Though the prophet had been fo deficient as not to name a fucceflbr at his death ; yet his fon-in-law Ali was always of opinion that the fuccelfion belonged of right to him ; and that it ought to be, like that of other kingdoms, he¬ reditary. Tiiis difpolition to render the apofilefhip here¬ ditary in his family, was, in all probability, what difgufted the Modems with Ali ; againft whom they could othenvife have no objedtion : for he was endowed with every amiable quality, and poffeffed fuch unparalleled ftrength and cou¬ rage, that he never declined a combat to which he was challenged, nor ever failed to come oft' victorious ; for which reafon he was ftyled the Lion of God.
On the death of Othrnan, however, notwithftanding the prejudices againft Ali, as none other could pretend fo good a l ight to the khalifate, the Arabs immediately took the oaths of allegiance to him, though with an intention to break it as foon as poflible, as was fully evinced by the event. The difturbances which happened on AH’s accef- fion, were owing partly to the machinations' of Ayeflia, who, as we have fern, having got Othrnan murdered, on
purpofe
ARABIA.
purpofe to raife Telba to the dignity of khalif, and now, finding Ali unanimoufly cliofen, rel'olved to deftroy him alfo. She therefore pretended great concern for the death of the late khalif, and accufed Ali of being his murderer: but, being reproved by one of the Moderns for endeavour¬ ing to blacken an innocent perfon, when fhe could not but know herfelf guilty, die replied, that Othman’s infidelity had indeed made her his enemy, but that die had forgiven him upon his repentance. At the time of All’s inaugu¬ ration the was at Mecca, where die enjoyed a very confi- derable fhare of influence and authority. At her infliga- tion, Telha Ebn Obeidallah, and Zobeir Ebn A1 Awam, began to reprefent to Ali, that the murderers of Otliman ought to be brought to condign punidiment ; offering tliem- felves at the fame time for that purpofe. This they did merely to fow difi’ention, for they thcmfelves had been deeply concerned in the murder ; and Ali, fufiiciently aware of their intention, told them it was impoflible till the em¬ pire fliould be more fettled. Finding themfelves difap- pointed in this attempt, they next begged the government of Cufa and Bafra, that they might w ith greater facility extinguifli any rebellion that fliould happen. Here again Ali was aware of their intention ; and refufed their requeft, under pretence that he flood in need of perfons of their great capacity, as counfellors, about his perfon. Then they defired leave to perform a pilgriihage to Mecca, which the khalif could not ref life ; and they w:ere no fooner got there, than they openly railed an army againft him, with¬ out any provocation at all.
This, however, was not the only fource of difeord. Ali had been difpleafed with the governors of provinces ap¬ pointed by Otliman ; and therefore difmiffed them imme¬ diately after his accellion. This was very impolitic ; but lie was prompted to it by that rafhnefs and want of pru¬ dence which is infeparable from, or rather is the very ef- fence of, great courage. The confequence of this was, that Moawiyah, governor of Syria, was, immediately upon his difmiflion by Ali, proclaimed khalif by the troops un¬ der his command. Thus the Modems were divided into two factions ; the one under Moawiyah and Ayeflia, who adhered to the lioufe of Ommiyah, to which Otliman and Moawiyah belonged ; and the other to Ali. The adherents of the lioufe of Ommiyah were called Motazalitcs , or fepa- ratijls.
Ali, finding how matters were fituated, and that a very ftrong party was formed againft him, endeavoured to in¬ gratiate himfelf as much as polfible with the Koreidi ; and to raife an army againft Ayeftia, who had now taken the field, and even reduced the city of Bafra. He made an animated fpeech to the people on hearing this had news, and defired their adjftance. But though he was very much beloved on account of his perfonal merit, and was the bed; orator of the age, he could not with all his eloquence pre¬ vail upon them to give a decifive anfwer in his favour. At Jaft Ziyad Ebn Hantelah ftepped up to Ali, and faid,
** Whofoever retreats, we will advance,” Upon this, two unfars , doflors of the law, flood up, and pronounced Ali innocent of the death of Otliman ; which decifion foon in¬ duced the anfars and the body of the people to efpoufe his caufe. He then left Medina at the head of 900 men, and advanced to Arjabah, where he was joined by feveral other parties. From this place he wrote to the people of Cufa and Medina, prefllng them to fend him farther afliftance, and to difpofe the Motazalites to an accommodation. From Medina he recsived a large fupply of horfes, arms, and other neeeflaries ; and from Cufa he obtained a reinforce,, nient of 8000 men. Encouraged by this feafonable fupply, Ali advanced towards Bafra, where the troops of Ayeftia were ready to receive him. Both parties feemed averfe to an engagement ; and Ayeftia was very much intimidated at the fight of Ali’s army, which, neverthel.efs, was inferior to her own. A battle at laft commenced, in which Ayeftia was defeated and taken prifoner. The only remarkable effort made by the troops of Ayeflia, was in defence of her perfon : it is faid, that feventy men, who held her camel * V 01,. II. No. 54.
by the bridle, had their hands cut off fuCceflively ■; and that the pavilion in which die fat was fo full of darts and arrows, that it refembled a porcupine. Ayedia was treated very kindly by Ali, who at firft let her at liberty, but af¬ terwards confined her to her lioufe at Medina, and com¬ manded her to interfere no more with ftate-aftairs, though he ftill allowed her to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca.
After this victory, Ali had no enemies to contend with either in Arabia, Irak, Egypt, Perfia, or Khorafan. A ftrong party, however, ftill remained in Syria, headed by Moawiyah, who founded his claims to the klialifate on a pretended declaration of Otliman that lie fliould be his fuc- cefl’or. In this defection he was joined by Amru Ebn A1 As, who had obtained a promife of the government of Egypt, provided Moawiyah could be advanced to the dig¬ nity of khalif. Ali, with his nfual good nature, endea¬ voured to bring tliefe rebels to a fenfe of their duty, and often fent propofals of accommodation to Moawiyah ; but he ftill remained inflexible. Perceiving, therefore, that it would be neceffary to invade Syria, he entered that coun^ try with an army of 90,000 men; while Moawiyah’s con¬ fided of 120,000. The two armies came in fight of each other towards the clofe of the 36th year of the Hegira, when only fome fleir mi flies happened between them, where¬ in neithar party fuftained any confiderable lofs.. The firft month of the 37th year was fpent in fruitlefs negociations ; but in the fecond month they began to fight in different- parties, without hazarding a general engagement. Thefe battles continued until Moawiyah’s lofs amounted to 45,000 men, and Ali’s to 23,000; among whom were twenty-fix who had been intimate friends of Mahomet himfelf, and were dignified with tiie title of the Companions. The moft famous of tliefe was Animar Ebn Yafer, Ali’s general of liorfe, who was upwards of ninety years of age, and was highly efteemed by both parties. This lofs fo exafperated. Ali, that lie charged the Syrians with great fury, broke them, and challenged Moawiyah to fight him in tingle combat. This challenge Moawiyah declined, infilling that it was not a fair one, as Ali could not but be fen/ible of his fuperiority in ftrengtli. As the challenge was given in the hearing of both armies, Amru infilled that Moawiyah could not in honour refufe it; but the coward made no other reply than that Amru afpired to the klialifate him¬ felf, and wanted to enjoy it after his death. The battle being now renewed, Moawiyah’s forces were puflied to their camp ; which certainly had been taken, had not Amru bethought himfelf of the following flratagrm : He or¬ dered fome of his men to fix copies of the Koran to the points of their lances, and carry them to the front of the battle, crying out at the fame time, This is the book that ought to decide all differences between us; this is the book of God between 11s and you, that abfolutely pro¬ hibits the effufion of Modem blood.” This produced ffife defired effect. The khalif ’s troops threw down their arms, and even threatened him with death if he did not found a retreat ; which he therefore was obliged to do, and thus had a decifive victory wrefted out of his hands.
According to this new mode of decifjpn, the two pai^ ties were each to choofe their arbitrator ; but even this wg not allowed to Ali, though Moawiyah had liberty to choofe Amru Ebn A1 As. The troops of Irak, not content with offering fo grofs an affront to the khalif, infilled on naming for his arbitrator Abu Mul'a A1 Afliayi ; a very weak man, and one who had already betrayed him. The opnfeqtienee of this appointment was, that Ali was deputed by both thp arbitrators ; and he accordingly dropped his title to the klialifate, but without putting himfelf in Moawiyah’s power, He retired to Cufa; where 12,000 of the troops that had forced him to accept of the arbitration, pretend¬ ing to be offended with the ffep he had taken, revolted from him. Tliefe were' called’ Kfiqrejitcs, that is, rebels or revolters ; and Mokakkemites, or' judiciarians, becaufe they affirmed that Ali had referred to the judgment of men what ought to have been only referred to the j udgment of God ; and, therefore, that, infteaAof keeping the peaqe he had
14 A R A
made with Ivloawiyah, he ought to have purfued his ene¬ mies, who were likewise the enemies of God. AH faid, That, as lie had given his word, he ought to keep it ; and, in fo doing, he only followed what was prefcribed by the law of Mahomet. The Kharejites contended, That God was the only judge between him and Moawiyah, and that confequently he had committed an enormous fin, of which he ought fincerely to repent. AH replied, That, if any fin had been committed on this occafion, it was by themfelves, who had forced him to take the fteps of which they now- complained. Irritated by this anfwer, theychofe for their general Abdallah Ebn Waheb, who appointed for their rendezvous Naharwan, a town fituate between Wafet and Bagdat, where they aflembled an army of 25,000 men. A li, having tried gentle methods ineffectually, at laft marched againft them in perfon. Before he attacked them, however, he planted a ftandard without the camp, and made proclamation, that whoever would repair to it (hould have quarter, and whoever would retire to Cufa fiiould find an afylum there. This had fuch an effeft, that Ab¬ dallah’s army was foon reduced to 4000 men, with whom he rulhed upon the khalif ’s forces, but nearly all of them were cut in pieces.
Had AH marched againft Moawiyah immediately after the defeat of the Kharejites, he had probably reduced him entirely : but, by allowing his troops to remain inactive, they deferted him, and Moawiyah’s party had an oppor¬ tunity of gathering rhore firength ; and though Moawiyah often made incurfions into the territories of AH, he now chofe to aft only on the defenfive. At laft the Kharejites, imagining that it would be for the good of the Mollem af¬ fairs that Moawiyah, Ali, and Antru, were dead, difpatch- ed affaffins to murder all three. Moawiyah was wounded, but recovered ; Antru’s fecretary was killed by miftake; but Ali was wounded with a poifoned fword, which op* cafioned his death. The affaffin was taken, and Ali would have pardoned him had he recovered, but ordered him to be put to death if he died, that he might, as he faid, *' have an immediate opportunity of accuiing him before God.” Even in this he manifelled his ufual clemency, by ordering the afTafiin to be dil'patched at one blow, and without torture of any kind.
Thus fell Ali, the mod virtuous of all the Mahometan khalifs, after he had reigned near five years, and lived fixty-three. He was prelled by thole about him to nomi¬ nate a fucceffor ; but this he declined, faying, he would follow the example of the Apoftle of God, who had not named any : and, as his fon Hafan inherited his father’s piety, though not his courage, he was declared khalif without any oppofition. Moawiyah, however, behaved in fuch a manner towards him, as betrayed his holtile inten¬ sions ; and thofe about Hafan prefTed him to declare war immediately. Hafan, who was of a mild and peaceable difpofition, could hardly be perfuaded to do tins ; and, though he at lalt took the field, yet he immediately per¬ ceived his incapacity to difpute the empire with Moawi¬ yah ; and therefore refigned it, in l'piterbf all the remon- ilrances of his friends, to a traitor, who caufed him after fbme years to be poifoned by his wife.
Moawiyah, on becoming mailer of the Modem empire, found himfelf under a necefiity of reducing the Kharejites, who were his enemies, and had raifed a confiderable army. To oppofe thefe rebels, the khalif would have difpatched Hafan, but, that prince refilling, he fent the Syrian troops againft them, who were defeated : however the Cufans, being at lalt perfuaded to take up arms, foon extinguilhed She rebellion, and fettled Moawiyah firmly on the Modem throne. In the 48th year of the Hegira, Moawiyah fent his fon Yezid with a powerful army to befiege Conftanti- nople. In this expedition he was attended by three or four of the Companions, who, notwithftanding their age, were prompted by zeal to undergo incredible fatigues. Concerning the particulars of this expedition we are in the dark: only that it proved unfuccefsful ; and in it Abu Ayub, wflo had fought by Maftmet at the battles ofhedi'
B I A.
and Ohod, loft his life. His tomb is held in fuch vene* ration by the Modems, that the fultans of the Ottoman family gird their fwords on before it, on their acceilion to the throne. In the 54th year of the Hegira, the Arabs made an irruption into Bukharia, and defeated a Ttirkilh army that oppofed them. The Turks loft a great number of men ; and the queen, who commanded in perfon, with great difficulty made her efcape. She had only time to put on one of her bulkins ; the other fell into the hands' of the Arabs, w-ho valued it at no lefs than 2000 dinars. About this time alfo, according to the Greek hiftorians, a treaty was concluded between the emperor and the Mol- lems, w’hereby the latter were allowed to keep the terri¬ tories they had feized ; in coniideration of which they were to pay 3000 pounds weight of gold, fifty daves, and as many horfes. To thefe diffionourable conditions they were obliged to fubmit, in confequence of their unfuccefsful expedition to Conftantinople, and fome other defeats they had received. This peace was to continue for thirty years. The next year, Moawiyah, having conferred the govern¬ ment of Khorafan upon Saad, Othman’s grandfon, that general palfed the Jihun, or Amu, the Oxus of the ancients, and advanced with a body of troops to Samarcand, which opened its gates to him on his approach; foon after which he defeated an army of Ulbeck Tartars, and marched di- re6lly to Tarrnub, which alfo furrendered without oppo¬ fition. The 57th year of the Hegira was remarkable for vaft fwarms of locufts, which did incredible damage in Syria and Mefopotamia : and great difcontents on account of the khalif’s having nominated for his fuccelfor his fon Yezid, a perfon of fcandalous life, and unw'orthy of the throne. The 58th year of the Hegira was diftinguifhed by the death of Ayeffia, Mahomet’s widow ; and the 60th by that of Moawiyah, after having reigned, from Hafan’s refignation, nineteen years, three months, and five days ; but concerning his age authors are not agreed. He was interred at Damafcus, which was made the refidence of the khalifs as long as the houfe of Ommiyah continued on the throne. »
Yezid was proclaimed, in confequence of his nomina¬ tion, the fame day his father died. His inauguration was performed on the new moon of the month Rajeb, corre- fponding to April 7, 680. Immediately after his election, he Wrote to A1 Walid, governor of Medina, tofeizeHo- fein, the remaining fon of Ali, and Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in cafe they refufed to acknowledge his right. He accor¬ dingly tendered the oath of allegiance to Hofein, whore- turned an evafive anfwer, and found means to efcape. As for Abdallah, he delayed, under various pretences, for twenty-four hours, and then made his efcape to Mecca, Hither Hofein followed him; but received an invitation from the people of Cufa, who proriiifed to affift him in vindicating the rights of his father Ali and himfelf. In the mean time, Yezid, being informed of Al Walid’s negligence in fuflering Abdallah and Hofein to efcape, fu- perfeded him, appointing in his room Amru Ebn Saad, at that time commandant of Mecca. The new governor difpatched againft Abdallah, Amer Ebn Zobeir, Abdal¬ lah’s own brother, who mortally hated him: but Abdal¬ lah, having engaged Amer in the field, defeated and took him prifoner, which greatly raifed his reputation at Medina.
While Abdallah was thus ftrengthening himfelf at Mecca and Medina, Hofein was doing the fame at Cufa. On the fir'll notice of their inclinations, he had fent to them Mo- flem Ebn Okail, to whom, as reprefentative of the fon of AH, they had taken an oath of allegiance, and w-ere now very preffing on Hofein to honour their city with his pre¬ fence. Befides this, Hofein was fupported by the forces of Irak, who retained a great veneration for the memory of his father, and had all along confidered the government of Moawiyah as an ufurpation. Notw-ithftanding thefe fteps in favour of Hofein, the deliberations of the conlpi- rators were carried on with fuch fecrecy, that AlNooman the governor was a ftranger to them, even after the Cu¬ fans had determined to enter upon attion with an army of
18,000
A R A
:$,6oo men. Yeziff, being difpleafed with his conduft, removed him, and appointed for his fucceffor Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad. This governor entered the city in the even- inf, and was received with all poflible demonllrations of joy 'by the Cufans, who miftook him for Hofein, owing to a black turban refembling that which Hofein ufually wore. His firft care was to extinguiffi the fedition that had been excited by Modem. For this purpofe, he employed a trufty fervant to perfonate a ftranger come out of Syria to fee' the inauguration of Hofein, and to get admiffipn into Modem’s houfe, to penetrate all his councils. This corn- million was faithfully executed ; and Obeidallah, under- ftanding that Modem lodged in the houfe of one Sharik, ■who was then fick, font a medenger to Sharik, letting him know that he intended to vifit him on a certain day. Sharik came to a refolution to receive him, and appointed Modem a place in the corher of the room, whence he might rulh out upon Obeidallah and kill him. The vidt was accordingly made; but, Modem’s heart failing him, the governor efcaped ; Hani, however, in whofe houfe Modem was firft lodged, was imprifoned by Obeidallah. Upon the news of this, Modem allembled about 4000 men, and befieged Obeidallah in the caftle. The governor, how¬ ever, made a fpeech to Modem’s followers ; which had fuch an effeift, that they all defected him except about thirty. By the favour of the night, Modem efcaped to a poor woman’s cottage in the neighbourhood; but, being betrayed by her fon, Obeidallah lent a detachment of eighty horfe to feize him. Modem made a gaHant refiftance, and thrice cleared the houfe of his enemies ; but being at laft overpow ered, and grievoufly wounded, he was taken and brought to Cufa. While on the road, he endeavoured to fend an account of his bad fuccefs to Hofein, but without fuccefs. When arrived at the caftle, he was brought before the governor, and beheaded with Hani, and both their heads were fent as a prefent to Yezid.
Hofein, in the mean time, was preparing to fet out for Cufa, having received the moft favourable advices from Modem, of whofe fate he was ignorant, and who had fent him a lift of 140,000 men that w ere ready to obey his or¬ ders. This the wifeft of his friends reprefented as a defpe- rate enterprize, and intreated him to defer his journey till he diould be better affured of fuccefs : but Hofein was deaf to all advice, and no arguments could reft rain him. The confequenoes may ealily be imagined ; Obeidallah dil’patched 5000 men againft him; with orders not to offer any violence to him, provided he fubmitt-ed. To thefe terms the infatuated Hofein would not agree : he offered, indeed, to return home, if Obeidallah would permit ; but that not being granted, he defperately engaged the troops of Obeidallah ; and, after a long refiftanoe, was cut in pieces, with all his men.
In the 6 iff year of the Hegira, Yezid appointed Sal emEbn Ziyad governor of Khorafan, with orders to make an irrup¬ tion into the Turkifh territories. He advanced with a con- fiderable body of troops to Khowarazm, the principal city of the Turks in thole parts, from which he is laid to have extorted the immenfe liim of 50,000,000 pieces of money ; from whence advancing to Samarcand, he forced the inha- habitants of that city alfo to pay him an immenfe fum ; and then retired, with little lofs, into the province he governed.
In the mean time Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, finding him- felf, by the death of Hofein, at the head of the partizans of the houfe of Haftiem, who were greatly opprelled by Yezid, began in earned to afpire to the khaiifate. As he had never owned the authority of Yezid, he now openly declared againft him, and was proclaimed khalif at Me¬ dina foon after the arrival of Hofein’s family in that place. Upon his inauguration, to render hirafelf more popular, he expatiated 011 the circumftances of Hofein’s death, which was very tragical, and reprefented the Cufans as the molt abandoned and perfidious people upon earth. The citizens of Mecca and Medina flocked to him in great numbers, and he foon found himfelf at the head of a confiderable force, The people of Medina alfo, having frefli intelli*
B I A. f«
gence of Yezid’s diffolute manner of life, renounced their allegiance to him, and formally depofed him in a very lin¬ gular manner. After they had allembled in the mofque, one of them laid, “ I lay alide Yezid as I do this turban,’* and immediately threw his turban on the ground. Ano¬ ther faid, “ I put away Yezid as I do this Ihoe,” calling away his Ihoe at the lame time. Thefe examples being followed by others, there was a large heap of Ihoes and turbans almoft inftantiy formed. They then difniiffed Ye¬ zid’s governor, and banifhed from the city all the friends and dependents of the houfe of Ommiyah. Thefe, to the number of near a thoulknd, took refuge ip the houfe of Merwan Ebn A1 Ilakem, where they were fo clofely be¬ fieged by Abdallah’s party, that they were obliged to fend to Yezid for afliftance. The khalif difpatched Mollem Ebn Okba to Medina, with a confiderable body of troops, to quell the difturbances. He ordered him to fpare Alt the fon of Hofein, and his family ; but he was to fummon the town to furrender, which, if they refilled, he was to take it by ftorm, and give it up to be plundered by the foldiers. The inhabitants of Medina, being now fenfiblp of their danger, fullered the friends of the houfe of Om¬ miyah to depart, on extorting a promife from them not to appear in arms againft the reigning faction. Mollem, in the mean time, advanced at the head of 5000 foot and 12,000 horfe ; and, having fummoned the city, according to his inftrinffions, upon its refufal he made the neceffary preparations for an affault. The garrifon made a vigorous defence ; but, moft of the Anfars and principal officers being killed, the Arabs propofed a capitulation. Mollem, how¬ ever, would hearken to no terms, and inlifted on their fur¬ rendering at diferetion ; which being refufed, he entered the city by ftorm. Ali was treated with great refpeft, but all the men that had carried arms were put to the fword, and Mofiem fuffered his troops to raviffi 1000 women, and to pillage the city for three days fuccellively.
After the reduction of Medina, Mollem proceeded to Mecca, w'here Abdallah then refided; but he died by the way, and the command of the army devolved upon Hofein Ebn Thamir A1 Selwi. This general advanced to Mecca, which he befieged for forty days, battering the town witii fuch fury, that he beat down a great part of the temple, and burnt the reft ; nor would the city itfelf have efcaped the fame fate, had not an account arrived of die death of Yezid, who died in the lixty-fourth year of the Hegira, anfwering to the year 684of the Chriftian era, having lived thirty-nine, and reigned three years and fix or eight months.
Yezid was fucceeded by his fon Moawiyah II. who was proclaimed khalif at Damalbus the fame day that his father died; but, being of a weakly conftitmion, and unable to bear the fatigues of government, lie religned the crown fix weeks after his inauguration, and died foon after, with¬ out naming a fucceffor. This abdication left the Mollem empire ablblutely without a mailer, and great commotions enlued. On the death of Yezid, Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad, governor of Bafra, reprefented to the citizens that they ought to name a protestor, till a new khalif fliould be chofen ; and, if the perfon elected fliould be difagreeable to them, they might then remain in a (late of independence under their own protestor. The inhabitants, perceiving the drift of this fpeech, complimented him with that ho¬ nour; which he accepted with feeming reluflance ; but, fending a deputy to Cufa, the inhabitants of that city not only refufed to acknowledge his authority, but threw duff and gravel at his nveflenger. This coming to the ears of the people of Bafra, they not only deprived Obeidallah of tlie dignity they had conferred upon him, but even ex¬ pelled him the city. Nor could he prevail upon the Najari, a tribe of Anfars, to efpoufe Iris caufe, nor even upon his own relations ; nay, fo odious had he rendered himfelf on account of his cruelties, particularly the death of Hofeinthe fon of Ali, that his brother Abdallah was unable to protect .him from the fury of the populace, though he kept him concealed in women’s clothes, and diftributed among the jriob 400,000 pieces oflnonty, . Uc was therefore obliged
'1.
iS A R A
to leave the city; and, immediately after his departure, the mob plundered his houfe, and purfued him, fo that he was forced to exchange his camel for an afs, and thus in difguil'e efcaped into Syria.
In the mean time, Hofein Ebn Thamir, being returned into Syria, gave a faithful account of the fituation of affairs in Arabia, to Merwan Ebn A1 Hakern. He alfo acquainted him of the offer he had made to Abdallah of the oath of allegiance, which the latter had refufed. On this account he advifed Merwan to take care of himfelf, and the reft of the houfe of Ommiyah, who had fled to Damafcus af¬ ter their expulfion from Medina. Merwan was now in¬ clined to fubmit to Abdallah ; but was diverted from it by Obeidallah, who infifted that no fuperior ought to be acknow ledged by Merwan, who was at the head of the Koreifh. The people of Damafcus had conflituted Dahak Ebn Kais their protedor, w ho was in the intereft of Ab¬ dallah. The Bafrans were at this juncture entirely in tu¬ mult and confufion, not being able to agree about a pro¬ tedor after the expulfion of Obeidallah ; fo that at laft they wrote to Abdallah, offering him the government of their territory. 1 his he accepted, but. could not be pre¬ vailed upon to ftir from Mecca ; nor could Merwan be perfuaded to fuffer any of the Syrians to perform the pil¬ grimage to Mecca, left they fhould join Abdallah, and thereby contribute to his exclufion from the throne. In the midft of this confufion, Abdallah might have eafily fecured the khalifate to himfelf, had he not, with the ut- moft imprudence as well as inhumanity, givenorders for the extermination of the houfe of Ommiyah. This ruined his affairs ; for, they being now, obliged to provide for their own fafety, Merwan was proclaimed khalifat Damafcus: <md thus the whole Modem empire was rent into two po¬ tent fadions; the one under Merwan, and the other un¬ der Abdallah.
We have already obferved, that Dahak Ebn Kais in¬ clined to favour Abdallah. This he continued to do after Merwan was proclaimed khalif, infomuch that a battle en filed between his followers and thofe of Merwan, in which Dahak was defeated and killed; and Merwan be¬ came mafter of all the province of Syria. Soon after this yidory, Merwan advanced with a confiderable body of troops towards Egypt ;. but fent before him Amru Ebn Said with a detachment, in order to facilitate his paffage. That general having defeated Abdalrahman, Abdallah’s lieutenant, in feveral adions, he at laft furrendered the whole country to Merwan for a fum of money, and retired with the Arabs under his command to Hejaz. The Syrian troops, therefore, immediately took pofteflion of that coun¬ try, and obliged the inhabitants to take an oath of alle¬ giance to Merwan ; who, having appointed his fon Ab- dalazziz to prelide over Egypt, returned with the greateft part of his forces to Damafcus. I-Iere lie was informed that Abdallah had fent againft him his brother Mufab with a confiderable army, Merwan, therefore, difpatched Amru Ebn Said to attack him on his march ; who, when TTe came up with him, gave him a total- defeat, and dif- perfed his troops in fuch a manner, that Mufab found it impofiible to rally them again.
In the 65th year of the Hegira, the inhabitants of Cufa, pretending to be feized w ith remorfe of confcience for their treachery to Hofein the fon of Ali, raifed an infurredion againft both the khalifs, and affembled a body of 16,000 men, under the command of Soliman, who was to revenge the death of Hofein upon Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad and his adherents. But, while Soliman and his troops remained yet inadive, Al Mokhtar, who had fevved under Abdallah, *md w as i.ifgufted at not being promoted, arrived at Cufa ; and, reprelenting Soliman as totally unfit for fuch an en- terprize, offered to take the command upon himfelf. This, however, was refufed ; and, as Ai Mokhtar had no opi¬ nion of Solimair’s military capacity, he found means to draw off 2000 of his troops; while 10,000 more chofej rather to violate their oaths, than run the rifle of being cut fo pieces by a fuperior enemy. Soliman, neverthclefs, put
B I A.
a good face upon the matter ; andr telling his troops that they were to fight for another world, and not this, fet forward to invade Syria with only 4000 men. Being ad¬ vanced as far as Ekfas upon the Euphrates, he found that he had loft rooo men by defertion ; nor was he joined by the Separatifts of Bafra and Al Madayen, who had pro- mifed him a reinforcement. Firmly perfuaded, however, that his caufe was the caufe of heaven, Soliman continued his march all night, and next day arrived at the tomb of Hofein, where his men performed their devotions with great entluifiafm. Continuing ftill to advance, he received a friendly letter from Abdallah Ebn Yezid, governor of Cufa, advifing him to return, and reprefenting to him the folly of engaging fo powerful an army as would be fent againft him ; but Soliman, imagining that he was only re¬ called in order to fupport Abdallah Ebn Zobeir in his pre- tenfions to the khalifate, perlifted in his l’efolution of pe¬ netrating into Syria. He told his troops, that they would never be nearer the twoHofeins in heaven than they were at prefent ; and that, fliould they at this time meet with death, they would be in a fiate of repentance, and confe- quently could never die in a better time. After this fpeech, continuing ftill to advance, he was at laft met by Obei¬ dallah at the head of 20,000 horfe, who, after an obftinate engagement, cut to pieces Soliman and all his troops. Soon after this adtion, the khalif Merwan died, having reigned only eleven months. He is faid to have been poi- foned by his wife Zeinab, Moawiyah’s widow. Her he had married, with a promife that her Ion Khaled ftiould fncceed him ; but, afterwards altering the fuccefiion in fa¬ vour of his own fon Abdalmalec, young Khaled reproach¬ ed him with his breach of promife : upon this Merwan calling him baflard, the child complained to his mother ; who, to be revenged for this affront, is faid to have poi- foned him, or fmothered him with a pillow.
In the beginning of the khalifate of Abdalmalec, Al Mokhtar, who had been imprifoned by the governor of Cufa, was releafed at the interceffion of Abdallah Ebn Omar, who married his lifter. The year following, hav¬ ing put himfelf at the head of the Shiite fe diaries, he fent propofals of alliance to Abdallah Ebn Zobeir ; but he, fufpediing his fincerity, cut off near 3000 of his men. Up¬ on this, Al Mokhtar, fearing the houfe of Ali might be intimidated, fent a letter to Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah, head of that family, in which he offered his aftiftance with a powerful army. This ofFer Mahomet declined, declaring himfelf only for pacific meafures ; yet, though he and all the reft of Ali’s family behaved in the molt peaceable manner, Abdallah did not think himfelf fecure till they owned his authority. He therefore imprifoned them, to¬ gether with feventeen of the principal citizens of Cufa, whom he threatened to burn, if they did not, within a li¬ mited time, take the oath of allegiance to him. Al Mokh¬ tar, being informed of the fituation they were in, fent a detachment of 750 horfe to Mecca, under Abu Abdallah, to releafe them. That general not only executed his or¬ ders with great bravery, but took Abdallah himfelf pri- foner, and would have cut him to pieces on the fpot, had he not been releafed at the interceffion of Mahomet, who adjuftedthe differences to the mutual fatisfadfion of all parties. After this reconciliation, Abu Abdallah diftri- buted among 4000 of All’s friends a fum of money brought for that purpofe, to indemnify them for the Ioffes they had fuftained. Thus the family of Ali were happily delivered, when only two days of the time granted them by Abdallah remained, and a quantity of wood and other combuflibles were collected to confume their bodies.
The Cufans, having received advice that Merwan had fent Obeidallah with a powerful army to befiege their city, and even given him permiftion to plunder it in cafe it fhould be taken, appointed Yeztd Ebn Ares, a man of un¬ daunted courage, to oppofe him ; but, Merwan dying be¬ fore Obeidallah could execute his commilfion, an end was put to the expedition. The memory of it, however, ftilL remained; and Al Mokhtar, to whom Obeidallah v/as per, 1 fondly
A R A
fbnally obnoxious, affembled a body of troops to aft offen- fively againft him, and even againft the Syrian khalif him- fel f , in cafe he tliould fupport Obeidallah. Among other preparations for this enterprize, A1 Moklitar caufed a portable throne to be made, telling his troops, that, “ it would be of the fame life to them that the ark was to the children of Ifrael.” It was therefore carried on a mule at the head of the army, and the following prayer faid before it: “ O God ! grant that we may live long in thy obedi¬ ence; help us; and do not forget us, but proteft us.” This expedient was fo well adapted to the enthulialls who compof'ed A1 Mokhtar’s army, that they attacked Obei- dallah’s camp with great intrepidity, and gained a com¬ plete viftory. Obeidallah himfelf was killed, and his head lent to A1 Mekhtar. By this viftory the feftaries were rendered fo formidable, that Nifibis, and feveral other ci¬ ties, furrendered to them. They now began to entertain thoughts of depofing both the khalifs, and placing on the Modem throne one of the family of Ali ; but all their towering hopes were foon fruftrated, by the defeat and death gf Al Moklitar, by Mufab, brother to Abdallah Ebn Zobeir. Al Moklitar, after his defeat in a general engagement by Mufab, fled to the cattle of Cufa, where he defended himfelf for fome time ; but, being at lafl killed, his men, to the number of 7000, furrendered at difcretion, and were all put to the fword for the outrages they had committed.
The next year, the 68th of the Hegira, the Azarakites, fo denominated from Nafe Ebn Al Azarak, the founder of their feft, having affembled a confiderable force, made an irruption into Irak. They advanced almoft to the gates of Cufa, and penetrated to Al Madayen. Being fworn enemies of the houfe of Ommiyah, and acknowledging no government fpiritual or temporal, they committed terrible ravages in every part of the Modem territories through which they palfed. They carried their excelfes to fucli a pitch as to murder, all the people they met with, to rip open women with child, and commit every fpecies of cru¬ elty that could be invented. The governor of Mavvfel and Mefopotamia, being informed of thefe outrages, marched againft them with a body of troops, and carried on a war with them for eight months. During this period, their leader, Nafe Ebn Al Azarak, died ; and was fucceeded by Katri Ebn Al Fojat, under whom they continued their depredations. Mtilab, not being pleafed with his lieute¬ nant’s management of the war, recalled him, and fent in his place Omar Ebn Abdallah Temimi, who gave the Azarakites a total overthrow at Naifabur in Khorafan, put great numbers to the fword, and purfued the reft as far as Ifpahan and the province of Kerman. Having here received a reinforcement, they returned into the province of Ahwaz, and did incredible damage to the country. But Omar, advancing againft them a fecond time, they retired to Al Madayen. Omar purfued them thither alio, upon which they tied into the province of Kerman, and thence gradually difperfed themielves.
The next year, being the 69th of the Hegira, Abdal- malec left Damafcus to march againft Mufab. In his ab- fence he left Amru Ebn Said governor of the city; but he immediately feized upon it for himfelf, which obliged the Jchalif to return. After feveral Ikirmifhes between' feme of the khalif’s troops and thofe of Amru, a pacification was concluded at tiie interceflion of the women : but Ab- dalmalec barbaroufly put Amru to death with his own hand, notwithftanding his promife to the contrary; and was immediately feized with fu.ch a tremor, that he loft the ufe of almoft all his faculties, and was obliged to be laid in bed. In the mean time the palace was attacked by Yahyah, Amru’s brother, at the head of 1000 haves.' After a warm difpute, they forced open the gates, killed feveral of the guards, and were upon the point of entering the palace, when, a confiderable lum of money being thrown among them, they retired. So great, however, was Ab- dalmalec’s avarice, that, after the tumult was appealed, he recalled all the money which had been diftributed, Vo 1.. II. No. 55.
B I A. 17
and commanded it to be depofited in the public treafury. In the 70th year of the Hegira, the Greeks made an ir¬ ruption into Syria ; and Abdalmalec, having occalion for all his forces to aft againft Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, was obliged to pay a tribute of rooo dinars per day, according to Theophanes, and fend every year 365 flaves and as many horfes to Conftantinople. In this treaty, it was alfo ftipu. lated, that the revenues of Cyprus, Armenia, and Heria, ftiould be equally divided between the khalif and the Greek emperor.
Abdalmalec, being now at leifure to purfiie his expedi¬ tion againft Mufab, marched againft him in perfon ; and,, having come up with him at Malken, a fmall town on the frontiers of Mefopotamia, he was totally defeated and killed. After the battle, Abdalmalec repaired to Cufa. where he was received with the utmoft fubmifiion; and. people of all ranks came in crowds to take the oath of al¬ legiance to him. Upon this occalion he ordered vaft Aims of money to be diftributed among them, and gave a i'plen- did entertainment to his new fubjefts, to which even the nteaneft were not refined admittance. During the repaft, Mnfab’s head was prefented to the khalif ; upon which one of the company took occalion to fay, “ I law Hofein's head in this lame caftle prefented to Obeidallah ; Obei- dallah’s to Al Moklitar ; Al Mokhtar’s to Mufab ; and now at laft Mm'ab’s to yourfelf.” This obfervation fo af- fefted the khalif, that, either to avert the ill omen, or from fome other motive, lie ordered the caftle td be immediately deraolilhed. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in the mean time, hav¬ ing received the melancholy news of the defeat and death of his brother, affembled the people of Mecca, and from the pulpit made a Ipeech Askable to t lie occalion. He did his utmoft to put Mecca in a proper pofture of defence, ex¬ pecting a fpeedy vilit from his formidable competitor, who now gave law to Irak, Syria, and Egypt, without controul.
Soon after Abdalmalec’s return to Damafcus, he ap¬ pointed his brother Balhar governor of Cufa; and Khaled Ebn Abdallah, governor of Bafra. The latter had no fooner entered upon his office, than he removed from his com¬ mand Al Mohalleb, one of the greatfeft generals of the army ; appointing in his room Abdalaziz, who was greatly his inferior in military fkill. Of his difmiftion the Azara¬ kites being informed, they immediately attacked Abdala¬ ziz, entirely defeated him, and took his wife pr Toner. A difpute ariling among the viftors about the.ranfom of that lady, one of them, to end it, immediately cut off .her head. Upon this, Khaled was commanded to reinftate Al Mo¬ halleb, which he did ; and, having in conjunftion with him attacked the Azarakites, they forced their camp, and entirely defeated them.
In the 7zd year of the Hegira, Abdalmalec having no enemy to contend with but Abdullah Ebn Zobeir, he made great preparations for an invafion of Hejaz, giving the command of the army to Al Hejaj, one of his moft war¬ like and eloquent captains. Before this army marched for Mecca, lie oftered his protection to all the Arabs there, that would accept of it. Abdallah, being informed of the enemy’s approach, fent out feveral parties of horfe to re¬ connoitre, and give him intelligence of their motions. Be¬ tween thefe, and fome of Al Hejaj ’s advanced guards, fe¬ veral Ikirmiflves happened. This induced Al Hejaj to fend to the khalif for a reinforcement ; his troops, amounting to no more than 2000, w-ere infufficient for reducing Mecca. 1 he khalif ordered a reinforcement of 5000 men, under the command of Tharik Ebn Amer; but, notwithftanding this, he made but little pvogrefs in the liege for fome time ; and, while lie was battering the temple, a dreadful ftorm of thunder and lightning arofe, which killed twelve men, and fo difpirited the reft, that they refilled to aft any longer againft the place. Al Hejaj, however, railed their (pints, by obferving that he was a ion of Tehama; that this was' the ftorm of Tehama, and that their adverfaries fullered as much as they ; and the day following fome of Abdallah’s men were aftually killed by the ftorm, which gave Al Hejaj a further opportunity of animating his troops. At F laft,
18 A R A
lad, Abdallah having been deferted by mod of the inha¬ bitants of the place, and even by his two Cons, Hamza and Kobeib, defined to know his mother’s fentiments as to what co.urfe he ftiould take. He reprefented to her, that lie was almod entirely abandoned by his fubjeCts and re¬ lations ; that the few who perdded in their fidelity could fcarcely enable him to defend the city ; and that the Syrian fehalif would grant him any terms he diould think fit to demand. His mother inheriting an inflexible temper, and not able to bear the thoughts of feeing her fon reduced to the rank of a private perfon, being herfelf the daughter of Abu Beer the fird khalif, advifed him by no means to furvive the fovereignty, of which he was on the point of being deprived. This advice accorded with his own fen¬ timents, and he refolved nobly to die. After this, he de¬ fended the city, to the amazement of the befiegers, for ten days, though deditute of arms, troops, and fortifications. At lad, being animated by defpair, he rudied into the midd of the enemy, deftroyed a great number of them with his own hand, and was at length killed fighting valiantly for his crown. At the lad interview with his mother, die advifed him to put off his armour, that he might not lan¬ guid) by the accumulation of trifling wounds; and, to in- ipire him with greater fortitude, fhe gave him a draught in which a pound of mud; had been infilled. A1 Hejaj or¬ dered his head to be cut off, and his body to be affixed to a crofs ; and, by reafon of the mufk lie had drunk, the body emitted a grateful odour for feveral days.
By the reduction of Mecca, and the death of Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, Abdalnialec remained foie matter of the Mo ('- lem empire ; but he fitftained a great lofs the next year, in having an army of 100,000 men totally cut off by the Khazarians in Armenia. The governor, however, having marched in perfon againft them at the head of only 40,000 chofen troops, penetrated into the heart of Armenia, de¬ feated and difperfed a large body of the enemy, drove them into their temples, and then reduced them to afhes. One of his generals alfo defeated an army of 80,000 Kha¬ zarians at the Gafpian gates, deftroying a great number, and obliging the reff to embrace the Mahometan religion. Ad Hejaj, in confequence of thefe fervices, was made go¬ vernor of Medina, Irak, Khorafan, and Sijiflan.
In the 76th year of the Hegira, Saleh Ebn Marj, an en- thufiaft, and Shebib Ebn Zeid, a Khareiite, took up arms againft the khalif. They had confpired againft him the year before, while on a pilgrimage to Mecca ; and A1 Hejaj had been ordered to l'eize them, but they found means to make their efcape ; and, having now affemblcd about 120 followers, Saleh was proclaimed emperor of the faithful at Daras, in Mefopotamia. The governor foon received intelligence of their motions ; and ordered Adi to march againft them with a detachment of 1500 horfe; but tiie rebels, notwithflanding the fmallnefs of their number, defended themfelves with fuch bravery, that the khalif ’s troops were forced to difmount and fight on foot. The engagement continued till night; when the rebels, finding themfelves unable to contend with fuch numbers, retired to Mawfel. After this, A1 Hejaj, being informed that they had taken pod at Dalcara, purfued them witii 5000 men. The rebels, hearing of this formidable army, aban¬ doned their camp ; but were fo clofely purfued, that they were forced into an engagement at Modbaj, a fmall village on the Tigris. Saleh’s forces were foon thrown into dif- order, and himfelf killed : but Sliebib made an excellent retreat to a neighbouring caftle; from w hence he unex¬ pectedly Tallied out at midnight on the khalif’s forces, penetrated to the very heart of the camp, where he wound¬ ed the general himfelf, and difperfed the grcateft part of his army. After this, the rebels became tible even to Al Hejaj himfelf, whom they again defeated in feveral engagements ; and, taking advantage of his being at Bafra, made themfelves matters of Cufa with little oppofition. Al Hejaj was now obliged to write to the khalif for a ftrong detachment of Syrian troops, with which he again advanced againft Shebib ; whole army bearing no proper-
B I A.
tion to that of Al Hejaj, the former was totally ejefeated, and driven to Kerman. Having refrefhed his men in this province, he again advanced to Ahwaz, where he was attacked by one of Al Hejaj’s generals at the head of the Syrian army. Shebib defended himfelf with incredible valour, and feveral times repulled the khalif’s forces; but, being overpowered by numbers, he was put to flio-ht, and, in palling a bridge, was thrown off his horfe and drowned. His body was drawn up by a net, and the head cut off and fent to Al Hejaj. After his death, the rebels, quarrelled among themfelves, fo that the khalif’s troops deftroyed the greateft part of them. The remainder, un¬ der Katri Ebn Fojat, fled to Tabreftan. Here they were kindly received by A (hid the king, who attigned them a part of his territories for their habitation. But they had not been long fettled there, before they infilled upon Alhid’s either embracing Mahometanifm, or paying them an an¬ nual tribute ; which he refilling, t[ijy drove him into Irak, where he implored the khalif’s protection. Afliid after¬ wards conducted an army of Modem troops into Tabref- tan; where they fell upon the rebels with fuch fury, that they killed Katri, cut a great number of his men to pieces and took al! the reft ori loners.
This year, the 76th of the Hegira, money was firft coin¬ ed in Arabia. Previous to this, the dinars, or gold coins, had Greek inferiptions ; and die dirhems, or lilver ones, Perlic inferiptions. The firft erection of a mint in Arabia was occafioned by the following incident : Abdalnialec added to the letters lie wrote to the Greek emperor for coins, this ftiort paffage of the Koran, “ Say, God is one;” or, “ Say, there is one God ;” and then inferted the year of the Hegira, with the name of the prophet, to be inferi- bed on the dinars ; which gave the emperor great offence. Upon this he wrote to Abdalmalec, defiring him to alter that manner of writing, or he would fend him fome coins in which the name of Mahomet diould be mentioned in fuch a manner as would not prove very agreeable. Ab¬ dalmalec now refolved to coin money of his own ; aad accordingly lonie dirhems were this year (lamped by Al Hejaj, with the infeription Alla Samad, “ God is eternal which gave great offence to the fuperftitious Modems, as they imagined that the name of God would be thereby profaned by the touch of unclean perfons.
In the 77th year of the Hegira, the Arabs made an in- curlion into the imperial territories, where Lazica and Berhucium were betrayed to them ; and the next year they made themfelves matters of Africa Propria; demo- li filing the city of Carthage fo effectually that fcarcely a veftige of it was left. They were loon driven out, how¬ ever, by John the Patrician, a man of great valour and experience in war; but, returning with a fuperior force, they obliged John in his turn to fly to Conftantinople. The 79th year of the Hegira is remarkable for nothing but the rebellion of Abdalrahman in Perfia ; who drove the Khakan, or emperor of the Turks, Tartars, or Moguls, out of that country : but the following year, one of the Greek generals, named Heraclius, penetrated into Syria as far as Samofata, and deftroyed 200,000 Arabs, ravaging the country in a terrible manner ; but at laft Abdalrah- man was defeated and killed by Al Hejaj, after a vafl number of engagements, fome fay eighty-one, and others a hundred. lathe 83d year of the Hegira, the nobility of Armenia revolting, they drove the Arabs out of that province ; but Mahomet, one of the khalif’s generals, en¬ tering the country with a powerful army, got the authors of the revolt into his hands, and caufed them all to be burnt alive. Encouraged by this fuccefs, the Modems invaded Cilicia under Azar; but were, to the number of 10,000, cut in pieces by Heraclius; and the next year, having again entered that country, 12,000 more of them were deftroyed by the fame general, and the reft forced to fly into their own country.
In the 86th year of the Hegira, died the khalif Abdal¬ malec, after a reign of twenty-one years. He is faid to have had fuch a fetid breath, that the flies which acciden¬ tally
ARABIA.
tally fettled on his lips were indantly /truck dead by it. He was fticceeded by A1 Walid, who greatly extended the Modem dominions. The fird year of his reign, one of his generals, having palled the Oxus (now the Jihun), de¬ feated a numerous army of Turks and Tartars. He then over-ran and entirely reduced the countries of Sogd or Sogdiana, Bagrafs, Shafh, Targana, and the whole im- menfe tract of Mawaralnahr, or great Buckharia. He alfo conquered the khan of Khowarazim, obliging him to pay an annual tribute of two millions of dinars. About the fame time another general, Mahomet, made an irrup¬ tion into India, and fubdlied a confiderable part of that country. He alfo entirely ftibdued the kingdom of A1 Sind, lying between Perfia and India. In this expedition, Derar king of Ai Sind was defeated and killed, and had his head cut off by Mahomet. In the 90th year of the Hegira, the Moderns made an irruption into Cappadocia, defeated the emperor’s army who oppofedthem, and took the city of Tyana. The next year they made another in- curfion into the imperial territories, whence they carried off vail numbers, of Haves; and the year following Oth- man penetrated into the heart of Cilicia, where he made hintfelf mailer of feveral cities, but does not appear to have long maintained his conquells.
In the 93d year of the Hegira, anfvvering to that of Chrilt 712, Tarek Ebn Zarka made a defeent in Spain, defeated Roderic the lad king of the Goths, reduced the city of Toledo, and over-ran a confiderable part of the kingdom. Being afterwards joined by Mu fa, commander of the African Modems, the two generals made themfelves mailers of moll of the fortrelfes, fubjugating the whole country, and obliging it to pay tribute to the’khalif. In thefe expeditions the Modems acquired fpoils of an irn- menfe value ; and, amongd other things, an exceeding rich table, called, by the Arab writers, “ the table of Solomon the fon of David.” According to them, it confided en¬ tirely of gold and diver, and was adorned with three bor¬ ders of pearls; but Roderic of Toledo, a Spani/h hido- rian, fays it confided of one entire done, of a green co¬ lour, and of an immenfe lize, containing no lefs than 365 feet. He adds, that it was found near the mountain called in his days Jibal Soliman, or the “ mountain of Solomon.” After Mufa and Tarik had committed dreadful depreda¬ tions in Spain, they were both recalled by the khalif ; but, the next year, Tarik, having undertaken another expedi¬ tion into the fame country, landed 12,000 men at Gibral¬ tar, with which he plundered the whole province of Bse- tica, and over-ran the greateft part of Lufitania. Roderic, hearing of thefe depredations, fent againd him an army of raw undifcipllned troops, who were eadly defeated, and mod of them left dead on the fpot ; which fo animated the Arab commander, that he refolved to make an abfolute conqued of Spain. About the fame time another Modem general entered Pifidia with a powerful army, took the city of Antioch, and, after having ravaged the country, retired into the khalif’s territories with very little lofs.
In the 95th year of the Hegira died Al Hejaj, governor of Irak, &c. after he had prefided over that country for twenty years. He exercifed fuch barbarities upon thofe who were in fubjeftion to him, that he is faid to have killed j 20,000 men, and to have differed 50,000 men and 30,000 women to peridi in prifon. To palliate this cruelty, he ufed frequently to fay, That a fevere, or even violent, go¬ vernment, is better than one too weak and indulgent ; as the fird only injures particular perfons, but the latter de- droys the whole community. This year the Arabs gained a complete victory in Spain over Roderic the king of the Goths, who peri/hed in theadlion; and Tarik poffeffed himfelfof immenfe treafures, by which means he was ena¬ bled to reward both his officers and common foldiers. In the eadern parts of the world alfo, the ^trabs were this year very formidable ; Modema, an Arab general, having entered the imperial empire, ravaged the whole province of Galatia, carrying off many rich fpoils, and a vad num¬ ber of prifoners. The Greek emperor, hearing that Al
19
Walid dedgned to attack him both by fea and land, fent fome of Ids nobles to treat for peace; but without effect. The emperor therefore cau/ed a great number of light diips to be built, and the walls to be repaired; and or¬ dered fuch of the citizens as had not laid up provi/ions for three years, to depart the city. Al Walid in the mean time continued his. warlike preparations with the utmod vigour, being determined to make himfelf mader of Con- ftantinople.
In the 96th year of the Hegira, however, the khalif Al Walid died; and was fucceeded by Ids brother Soliman. This year the Modem conqueds in the ead were increafed by the reduction of Tabredan and Jurgan or Georgiana. In Spain, alfo, the city of Toledo, which had revolted, was reduced, with Augufra, now Saragoffa, and feveral other places. The next year Modema fet out for Con- dantinople, which he belieged without fuccefs till the 99th year of the Hegira; at which time he was obliged to re¬ turn, after having lod 1 20,000 men. The foldiers were reduced to the greated extremities of hunger, being forced to live upon bides, the roots and bark of trees, the mod naufeous animals, and even the dead bodies of their own companions. This year alfo (the 99th of the Hegira) is remarkable for the death of the khalif Soliman. Accord¬ ing to Tome, he was poifoned by Yezid his brother, go¬ vernor of Perda, who was difpleafed with his having ap¬ pointed his coufin-german, Omar Ebn Abdalaziz, as his iucceffor, to the exclufion of himfelf. According to others, he died of an indigedion. In the latter part of his reign, the Modems were by no means fuccefsful in Spain: the kingdom of Navarre, founded at this time by Pelagius or Pelayo, the Arabs were never able to reduce.
The new khalif, Omar Ebn Abdalaziz, was by no means of a martial character ; but is faid to have been very pious, and poffeffed very amiable qualities. He fuppreded the ufual malediction, which was foiemnly pronounced by the khalifs of the houfe of Ommiyah againd the houle of Ali ; and always diewed great kindnefs to the latter. He was poifoned by Yezid, after a fliort reign of two years and five months. Concerning Yezid, the fucced’or of Omar, we find very little worth mentioning. He did not long enjoy the dignity he had fo iniquitoully obtained, dy¬ ing after a reign of little more than four years. He died of grief for a favourite concubine named Hababak, who was choked by a large grape which duck in her throat.
Yezid was fucceeded by His brother Hefliam, who af- cended the throne in the 105th year of the Hegira. In the fecond and third years of his reign, feveral incurfions were made into the imperial territories, but generally with¬ out fuccefs. In the 109th year of the Hegira, Modema drove the Turks out of Armenia and Aderbijan, and again confined them within the Cafpian gates. The next year he obliged them to take an oath to keep within their own country ; but this they foon violated, and were again dri¬ ven back by Modema. About this time the Arabs, ha¬ ving paffed the Pyrenees, invaded France, to the number of 400,000, under the command of Abdalrahman. They advanced to Arles upon the Rhone, and defeated a large body of French that oppofed them; and, having alfo de¬ feated count Eudo, they purfued him through leveral provinces, waded the whole country with fire and fvvoru, and made themfelves matters of Tours, which they redu¬ ced to alhes. Here a dop was put to their devallations by Charles Martel ; who, coming up with them near the above-mentioned city, engaged them for feven days toge¬ ther, and gave them a total overthrow. The French ge¬ neral took all their baggage and riches; and Abdalrahman, with the fhattered remains of his army, reached the fron¬ tiers of Spain with the utmod difficulty. To make amends for this bad fortune, however, the khalif’s arms were fuc¬ cefsful againd the Turks, who had again invaded the eafi- ern provinces. •
In the 125th year of the Hegira died the khalif He/ham, after a reign of nineteen years, feven months, and eleven days. He was fucceeded by Al Walid II. who is repre-
ieuted
20 A R A
Tented as a man of a moft difTolute life, and was aflafiina- ted the following year on account of his infidelity. He was fucceeded by Yezid, the Ton of A1 Walicl 1. who died of the plague after a reign of lix months; and was fuc- ceeded by Ibrahim Ebn A1 Walid, an imprudent and fttipid prince. He was depofed in the 127th year of the Hegira by Merwan Ebn Mahomet, governor of Mefopotamia; who, as an excufe for his revolt, faid, That he intended to revenge the murder of the k'halif A1 Walid II. He was no fooner leafed on the throne, than the people of Hems rebelled. Again!! them the khalif marched with a pow¬ erful army, and fummoncd them to furrender. They allured him that they were difpofed to admit him into their city; and, accordingly, one of the gates being opened, Merwan entered with 300 of his troops. Thefe were im¬ mediately put to the fword by the inhabitants; and the khalif himfelf efeaped with great difficulty. However, lie afterwards defeated them in a pitched battle, killed a great number of them, difmantled the city, and crucified 600 of the principal authors of the revolt.
Damafcus having followed the example of Hems, and depofed the khalif’s governor, Merwan marched thither with great celerity, entered the city by (form, and brought to condign punilhment the authors of the revolt. Peace, however, was no fooner reftored at Damafcus, than Soli - man Ebn Hefiiam let up for himfelf at Bafar, where he was proclaimed khalif by the inhabitants. He alfembled an army of 10,000 men, with whom he marched to Kin- niilin, and was joined by valt numbers of Syrians, who flocked to him from all parts. Merwan, receiving advice of Soliman’s rapid progrefs, marched again!! him with all the forces he could alfemble, and entirely defeated him. In this engagement Soliman loft 30,000 men ; lo that he was obliged to fly to Hems, where 9000 men more took an oath to Hand by him to the laft. Having ventured, how¬ ever, to attack the khalif’s forces a fecond time, he was again defeated, and forced to fly back to Hems. Being clofely purfued by Merwan, lie conllituted his brother Said governor of the city, leaving with him the (battered remains of his troops, whilft he himfelf fled to Tadmor. Soon after his departure Merwan appeared before the town, which he befieged for feven months. The citizens, being reduced to the laft extremity, furrender-jd, and delivered Said into the khalif’s hands. In conlideration of this fub- miflion, Merwan pardoned the rebels, and took them un¬ der his protection. About the fame time, another pre¬ tender to the khalifate appeared at Cufa; but Merwan took fuch meafures, that he extinguilbed the rebellion be¬ fore it came to any height.
Notwithftanding the Tuccefs that had hitherto attended Merwan, a itrong party was formed againft him in Kho- rafan, by the houfe of A1 Abbas. The firft of that houfe that made any confiderable figure was named Mahomet, who flourillied in the reign of Omar Ebn Abdalaziz. He was appointed chief of the houfe of A1 Abbas about the hun¬ dredth year of the Hegira ; and is faid to have prophelied, that after his death, one of his fons, named Ibrahim, fhould prefide over them till lie was killed, and that his other foil Abdallah, furnamed Abul Abbas AL Sajfah, Ihoiild be kha¬ lif, and exterminate the houfe of Ommiyah. Upon this A1 Saffali was introduced as the future fovereign, and tliofe prefent kiffed his hands and feet. After the death of Mahomet, his fon Ibrahim nominated as his reprefentative in Khorafan, Abu Moflem, a youth of nineteen years of age; who beginning to raile forces in that province, Mer¬ wan fent againft him a detachment of horfe, under the command of Nafr Ebn Sayer; but that general was entirely defeated by Abu Modem, and the greateft part of his men killed. The next year, the 128th of the Hegira, Merwan made vaft preparations to oppole Abu Modem, who after the late victory grew formidable to the empire; and the year following he brought fo powerful an army into the field, that the khalif’s troops could not make head againft him ; his officers in Khorafan were therefore obliged either
3
B I A.
to take an oath of allegiance to Ibrahim, or to quit the province within a limited time.
In the 130th year of the Hegira, the khalif’s general Nafr was beaten by Kahtaba, anotherof Ibrahim’s generals, and forced to fly to Raya, a town of Dylam, according to fome, or of Khorafan, according to others. The next year Ibrahim having imprudently refolved to go on a pil¬ grimage to Mecca, attended by a numerous retinue fplen- didly accoutered, he was feized and put to death by Mer¬ wan ; and the year following Abul Abbas was proclaimed khalif at Cufa. As Toon as the ceremony was ended, lie Tent his uncle Abdallah with a powerful army to attack Merwan’s forces encamped near Tubar, where that khalif was then waiting for an account of the fuccefs of his troops under Yezid governor of Irak, againft Khatahba one of A1 Saffah’s generals. Khatahba, receiving advice of Ye- zid’s approach, immediately advanced againft him, and entirely defeated him; but, in eroding the Euphrates, the waters of which were greatly fwelled, he was carried away by the flood, and drowned. The purfuit, however, was continued by his fon Hamid, who difperfed the fugitives fo completely, that they could never afterwards be rallied. At the news of this dilafter, Merwan was greatly difpiri- ted ; but, foon recovering himfelf, he advanced, wfith the (hattered remains of his army, to meet Abdallah. In the beginning of the battle, the khalif happened to difmount; and his troops, perceiving t heir fovereign’s horfe with¬ out a rider, concluded that lie was killed, and therefore immediately fled ; nor was it in the power of the khalif to rally them again, fo that he was forced to fly to Da* mafeus : but the inhabitants of that city, feeing his con¬ dition defperate, Unit their gates againft him. Upon this he fled to Egypt, wdiere he maintained himfelf for fome time; but was at laft attacked and killed by Saleh, Ab¬ dallah’s brother, at Bufir Kurides. The citizens..of Da¬ mafcus, though they had ffiamefully defected Merwan, refilled to open their gates to the victors-; upon which Sa¬ leh entered the city by ftorm, and gave it up to be plun¬ dered by his foldiers.
By the total defeat and death of Mc-rwan, A1 Saffah became foie mailer of the Mollem throne ; but we hear of no very remarkable events that happened during his^ reign ; only that he maffacred great numbers of the par- tifans of the houfe of Ommiyah ; and that Cenftantine Copronymus, taking advantage of the inteftine divilions among the Modems, ravaged Syria. The khalif died of the fmall-pox in the 136th year of the Hegira, in the thirty-third year of his age ; and was fucceeded by his bro¬ ther A1 Manfur. In the beginning of A1 Manfur’s reign, hoftilities continued againft the houfe of Ommiyah, who ftill made rellftance, but were always defeated. Abdallah, however, the khalif’s uncle, cauled himfelf to be pro¬ claimed khalif at Damafcus; and, having all’embled a powerful army in Arabia, Syria, and Mefopoumia, ad¬ vanced with great expedition to the banks of the Mafius near Nifibus, where he encamped. A1 Manfur, being in¬ formed of this rebellion, difpatched Abu Modem againft Abdallah. This general, having harraffed him for five months, at laft brought him to a general aftion, in which he defeated him, and forced him to fly to. Bafra. Not¬ withftanding all his Cervices, however, Abu Moflem was foon after ungratefully and barbaroufly murdered by A1 Manfur, under pretence of being deficient in refpedt to¬ wards him.
After the death of Abu Moflem, one Sinan, aMagian, or adorer of fire, having made himfelf mailer of that ge¬ neral’s treafures, revolted againft the khalif ; but he was foon defeated by Jamhur Ebn Morad, who had been fent againft him with a powerful army. In this expedition Jamlnir having acquired immenfe riches, the covetous difpolition of the khalif prompted him to lend a perlon exprefs to the army, to feize upon all the wealth. This fo provoked Jamhur, that lie immediately turned his arms againft his mailer; but was loon defeated, and entirely re¬ duced .
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dated. The following year (the 139th of the Hegira), Abdalrahman, of the lioufe of Ommiyah, after the entire ruin of that family in Alia, arrived in Spain, where he Was acknowledged khalif ; nor did he or his defcendants ever afterwards own fubjedtion to the Arabian khalifs.
Tlte 140th year of the Hegira is remarkable for an at¬ tempt to alfaflinate the khalif, by the Rawandians, an im¬ pious fe<5t; who held the dodtrine of metempfychofis, or tranfmigidtion. They firft offered A1 Manfur divine ho¬ nours, by going in procelfion round his palace, as the Modems were wont to do round the Caaba ; but the khalif, highly incenfed at this impiety, ordered 100 of the prin¬ cipal of them to be imprifoned. Thefe were foon relealed by their companions-, who went in a body to the palace with an intention to murder their fovereign : but A1 Man- fur being a perfon of uncommon bravery, though he was furprifed With very few attendants, mounted a mule, and advanced towards the mutineers, determined to fell his life as dear as poflible. In the mean time, Maan Ebn Zaidat, one of the chiefs of the Ommiyah faction, who had concealed himfelf in order to avoid the khalif ’s re- fentment, fallied out of his retreat, and putting himfelf at the head of A1 Manfur’s attendants, charged the rebels with fuch fury, that lie entirely defeated them. This ge- nerofity of Maan was io remarkable, that it afterwards palled into a proverb. On this occalion 6000 of the Ra- Wandians were killed on the fpot, and the khalif delivered from alfaffination ; he was, however, lb much difgulted with the Arabs on account of their treachery, that he re- folved to remove the capital of his empire out of their peninfula; and accordingly founded a new city on the banks of the Tigris, which from that time to this has been known by the name of Bagdat. The foundations of it were laid in. the 145th year of the Hegira, and finifhed four years after. From this time, the hiltory of the Mof- lem government and empire is continued under the article Bagdat, which fee.
On the removal of the feat of government to Bagdat, the peninfula of the Arabs fee ms all at once to have loft its confequence, and in a fhort time the inhabitants feem even to have detached themfelves from the jurifdidtion of the khalifs: for in the 156th year of the Hegira, while A1 Manfur was yet living, they they made irruptions into Syria and Mesopotamia, as if to conquer thefe countries over again for themfelves ; and though the Arabs, pro¬ perly fo called, continued nominally fubjedt to the khalifs oi Bagdat till the abolition of the khalifate by Hulaku the Tartar, yet they did not become fubjedt to him when he became mailer of that city. There is even the ftrong- tft re a fon to believe that the Arabs (i. e. the inhabitants of the peninfula properly called Arabia) have remained independent, not only of Hulaku, but of every other con¬ queror that the world hath yet produced.
“ The perpetual independence of the Arabs (fays Mr. Gibbon) has been the theme of praife among ftrangers and natives. The kingdom of Yaman, it is true, has been fucceftively fubdued by the AbylTinians, the Perfians, the fultans of Egypt, and the Turks; the holy cities of Mec¬ ca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under a Scythian tyrant; and the Roman province of Arabia embraced the peculiar wildernefs in which H'mael and his fons muft have pitched their tents in the face of their brethren. Yet thefe exceptions are temporary or local ; the body of the nation has efcaped the yoke of the molt powerful monar¬ chies ; the arms of Sefoftris and Cyrus, of Pompey and Trajan, could never atchieve the conqueft of Arabia; the prefent fovereign of the Turks may exercife a fhadow of jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced to Solicit the friend- Ihip of a people whom it is dangerous to provoke, and fruitlefs to attack. The obvious caufes of their freedom are inferibed on the character and country of the Arabs. Many ages before Mahomet, their intrepid valour had been fevereiy felt by their neighbours in offenfive and de- fenfive war. The patient and a Clive virtues of a foldier are infenfibly nurfed in the habits and discipline of a paf.
Von. II. No. 55.
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tot al life. The care of the Sheep and camels is abandoned to the women of the tribe; ybut the martial youth under the banner of the emir, is ever on horfefea'ck, and in the field, to practife the exereife of the bow, the javelin, and. the feymetar. The long memory of their independence is the firmed pledge of its perpetuity ; and fncceeding ge¬ nerations are animated to prove their defeent and to main¬ tain their inheritance. Their domeftic feuds are fufpended on the approach of a common enemy ; and, in their laft hoiiilities againft the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was attacked and pillaged by four Score thouland of the con¬ federates. When they advance to battle, the hope of victory is in the front ; and, in the rear, the affuranceof a retreat. Their horfies and camels, who in eight or ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred miles,- dilappear before the conqueror; the fecret waters of the deleft elude his Search ; and his viclorious troops are con- fumed with third, hunger, and fatigue, in the purfuit of an invisible foe, who Scorns his efforts, and Safely repefes in the heart of the burning Solitude. The arms and de- ferts of the Bedouins are not only the Safeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers alfo of the Happy Arabia* whofe inhabitants, remote from war, are enervated by the luxury of the foil and climate. The legions of Auguftus melted away in difeafe and laffitude ; and it is only by a naval power that the reduction of Yaman has been fuc- cefsfully attempted. When Mahomet erected his holy Standard, that kingdom was a province of the Perfian em¬ pire; yet feven princes of the Homerites Still reigned in the mountains ; and the vicegerent of Chofroes was tempt¬ ed to forget his diftant country and his unfortunate mailer. The historians of the age of Juftinian represent the date of the independent Arabs, who were divided by intereft or affection in the long quarrel of the Eaft : the tribe of GaSfan was allowed to encamp on the Syrian territory : the princes of Hira were permitted to form a city about forty miles to the Southward of the ruins of Babylon. Their Service in the field was Speedy and vigorous ; but their friendship was venal, their faith inconftant, their enmity capricious : it was an eafier talk to excite than to difarm thefe roving barbarians ; and, in the familiar intercourse of war, they learned to lee, and to defpife, the fplendid weaknefs both of Rome and of Perfia. From Mecca to the Euphrates, the Arabian tribes were confounded by the Greeks and Latins, under the general appellation of Sara¬ cens ; a name which every Chriftian mouth has been taught to pronounce with terror and abhorrence.
“The (laves of domeftic tyranny may vainly exult in their national independence; but the Arab is perfonally free; and he enjoys, in fonie degree, the benefits of Society, without forfeiting the prerogatives of nature. In every tribe, fuperftitiow, or gratitude, or fortune, has exalted a particular family above rhe heads of their equals. The dignities of Iheich and emir invariably defeend in thischo- fen race ; but the order of fuccelfion is loofe and preca¬ rious; and the molt worthy or aged of the noble kinfmen" are preferred to the Simple, though important, office of compofing difputes by their advice, and guiding valour by their exatnple. The momentary junction of Several tribes- produces an army : their more lading union constitutes a nation; and the Supreme chief, the emir of emirs, whofe banner is displayed at their head, may defervC, in the eyes of ftrangers, the honours of the kingly name. If the Arabian princes abufe their power, they are quickly pu~ nilhed by the defertion of their fubjedts, who had been aceuftomed to a mild and parental jurifdidtion. Their fpirit is free, their Heps are unconfined, the defert is open* and the tribes and families are held together by a mutual and voluntary compadt. The fofter natives of Yaman Supported the pomp and majefty of a monarch ; but, if he could not leave his palace without endangering his life, the adtive powers of government muft have been devolved on his nobles and magistrates. The cities of Mecca and Medina prefent, in the heart of Alia, the form or rather the fubftance of a commonwealth. The grandfather of G Mahomctj
22
A R A
Mahomet, and his lineal anceftors, appear in foreign and domedic tranfaflions as the princes of their country ; but they reigned like Pericles at Athens, or the Medici at Florence, by the opinion of their vvifdom and integrity ; their influence was divided with their patrimony : and the fceptre was transferred from the uncles of the prophet to a younger branch of the tribe of Koreifh. On folemn occaflons they convened the aflembly of the people; and, fince mankind muft be either compelled or perfuaded to obey, the ufe and reputation of oratory among the ancient Arabs is the cleared: evidence of public freedom. But their Ample freedom was of a very different cart from the nice and artificial machinery of the Greek and Roman re¬ publics, in which each member polfeffed an undivided fhare of the civil and political- rights of the community. In the more Ample date of the Arabs, the nation is free, becaufe each of her foils difdains a bafe fubmilfion to the will of a mader. His bread is fortified with the audere virtues of courage, patience, and fobriety : the love of independence prompts him to exercife the habits of felf- command ; and the fear of didionour guards him from the meaner apprehenfion of pain, of danger, and of death. The gravity and firmnefs of the mind is confpicuous in its outward demeanor: his fpeech is flow, weighty, and con- cife; he is feldom provoked to laughter ; his only geflure is that of droaking his beard, the venerable fymbol of manhood; and the fenfe of his own importance teaches him to accod his equals without levity, and his fuperiors without awe. The liberty of the Saracens furvived their conqueds : the firft khalifs indulged the bold and familiar language of their fubje&s : they afcended the pulpit to perliiade and edify the congregation ; nor was it before the feat of empire was removed to the Tigris, that the Ab- baflides adopted the proud and pompous ceremonial of the Perfian and Byzantine courts.
“ In the dudy of nations and men, we may obferve the paufes that render them hodile or friendly to each other, that tend to narrow or enlarge, to mollify or exafperate, the facial characler. The reparation of the Arabs from the red of mankind has accudomed them to confound the ideas of dranger and enemy; and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim of jurifprudence, which they be¬ lieve and praCtife to the prefent hour. They pretend, that in the divifion of the earth the rich and fertile cli¬ mates were afligned to the other branches of the human family; and that the poderity of the outlaw Ifmael might recover, by fraud or force, the portion of inheritance of which he had been unjudly deprived. According to the remark of Pliny, the Arabian tribes are equally addicted to theft and merchandife : the caravans that traverfe the defert are ranfomed or pillaged ; and their neighbours, fince the remote times of Job and Sefodris, have been the victims of their rapacious fpirit. If a Bedouin difcovers from afar a folitary traveller, he rides furioufly againd him, crying, with a loud voice, “ Undrefs thyfelf, thy aunt ( my wife) is without a garment.” A ready fubmiffion intitles him to mercy; refidance will provoke the aggref- for, and his own blood mud expiate the blood w hich he prefumes to died in legitimate defence. A Angle robber, ora few- affociates, are branded with their genuine name; but the exploits of a numerous band affume the character of lawful and honourable war. The temper of a people, thus armed againd mankind, was doubly inflamed by the domedic licence, of rapine, murder, and revenge. In the conditution of Europe, the right of peace and war is now confined to a final], and the aCtual exercife to a rough fmaller, lid of ref'peCtable potentates ; but each Arab, with impunity and renown, might point his javelin againd the life of his countryman. The union of the nation con¬ fided only in. a vague refemblance of language and man¬ ners; and in each community the jurifdiCtion of the ma- gidrate was mute and impotent. Of the time of ignorance w hich preceded Mahomet, 1700 battles are recorded by tradition: hodility was embittered with the rancour of civil faction ; and the recital, in profe or verle, of an ob-
B I A.
folete fend was fufficient to re-kindle the fame paffioras among the defeendants of the hodile tribes. In private life, every man, at lead every family, was the judge anil avenger of its own caufe. The nice fenfibility of I10- nout, which weighs the infult rather than the injury, flieds its deadly venom on the quarrels of the Arabs: the ho¬ nour of their women, and of their beards , is mod eafily wounded ; an indecent a£tion, a contemptuous word, can be expiated only by the blood of the offender; and fuch is their patient inveteracy, that they expeCt whole months and years the opportunity of revenge. A fine or compen- fation for murder is familiar to the barbarians of every age : but in Arabia the kinfmen of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement, or to exercife with their own hands the law of retaliation. The refined malice of the Arabs refufes even the head of the murderer, fubditutes an innocent to the guilty perfon, and transfers the penalty to the bed and mod confiderable of the race by whom they have been injured. If he falls by their hands, they are expofed in their turn to the danger of reprifals; the intered and principal of the bloody debt are accumulated ; the individuals of either family lead a life of malice and fufpicion, and fifty years may fometimes elapfc before the account of vengeance be finally fettled. This fanguinary fpirit, ignorant of pity or forgivenefs, has been moderated, however, by the maxims of honour, which require in every private encounter fome decent equality of age and drength, of numbers and weapons. An annual fedival of two, perhaps of four, months, was obferved by the Arabs be¬ fore the time of Mahomet ; during which their fwords were religioufly fheathed both in foreign and domedic hof- tility : and this partial truce is more drongly expreflive of the habits of anarchy and warfare.
“ But the fpirit of rapine and revenge was attempered by the milder influence of trade and literature. The fo¬ litary peninfula is encompaffed by the mod civilized nations of the ancient world : the merchant is the friend of man¬ kind; and the annual caravans imported the fird feeds of knowledge and politenefs into the cities, and even the camps of the defert. The arts of grammar, of metre, and of rhetoric, were unknown to the free-born eloquence of the Arabians; but their penetration was fharp, their fancy luxuriant, their wit drong and fententious, and their more elaborate compofitions were addrelled with energy and efteCt to the minds of their hearers. The genius and merit of a rifing poet was celebrated by the applaufe of his own and the kindred tribes. A folemn banquet was prepared, and a chorus of women, driking their tymbals, and difplaying the pomp of their nuptials, fung in the prefence of their fons and hufbands the felicity of their native tribe ; that a champion had now appeared to vin¬ dicate their rights ; that a herald had raifed his voice to immortalife their renown. The didant or hodile tribes reforted to an annual fair which was abolidied by the fa- naticifm of the firft Mofiems ; a national aflembly that mud have contributed to refine and harmonife the barbarians. Thirty days were employed in the exchange, not only of corn and wine, but of eloquence and poetry. The prize was difputcd by the generous emulation of the Bards; the victorious performance was depofited in the archives of princes and emirs ; and we may read in our own lan¬ guage the feven original poems which were inferibed in letters of gold and fufpended in the temple of Mecca. The Arabian poets were the hidorians and moralids of the age ; and, if they fympathifed with the prejudices, they in- fpired and crowned the virtues, of their countrymen. The indiflbluble union of generolity and valou'r was the darling theme of their long; and, when they pointed their keen¬ ed fatire againd a defpicable race, they affirmed, in the bitternefs of reproach, that the men knew not how to give, nor the women to deny. The fame hofpitality which Was praCtifed by Abraham and celebrated by Homer, is dill renewed in the camps of the Arabs, The ferocious Bedouins, the terror of the defert, embrace, without in¬ quiry or hefitation, the dranger who dares to confide in
their
A R A
their honour and to enter their tent. His treatment is kind and refpeftful : he fliares the wealth or the poverty of his hoft ; and, after a needful repofe, he is difmilfed on his way, with thanks, with blelliings, and perhaps with gifts.
“The religion of the Arabs, as well as of the Indians, confided in the worthip of the fun, the moon, and the fixed (tars; a primitive and fpacious mode of fuperftition. The bright luminaries of the (ky difplay the vifible image of a Deity : their number and difiance convey to a philofophic, or even a vulgar, eye, the idea of boundlefs fpace : the the charafler of eternity is marked on thefe folid globes, that feem incapable of corruption or decay : the regularity of their motions may be afcribed to a principle of reafon or' inftindt ; and their real or imaginary influence encou¬ rages the vain belief that the earth and its inhabitants are the obje£l of their peculiar care. The fcience c f afirono- my was cultivated at Babylon ; but the fchool of the Arabs was a cle^tt|Lrmament and a naked plain. In their noc¬ turnal manures, they fieered by the guidance of the ftars : their names, and order, and daily ftation, were familiar to the curiofity and devotion of the Bedouin ; and he was taught by experience to divide in twenty-eight parts the zodiac of the moon, and to blefs the conftellations who refreflied, with falutary rains, the third: of the defert. The reign of the heavenly orbs could not be extended be¬ yond the vifible fphere ; and fome metaphyfical powers were ricceflary to fuftain the tranfmigration of fouls and the refurredtion of bodies ; a camel was left to perifli on the grave, that he might ferve his mailer in another life: and the invocation of departed fpirits implies that they were (fill endowed with confcioufnefs and power. Each tribe, each family, each independent warrior, created and changed the rites and the object of his fantafiic worftiip ; but the nation, in every age, has bowed to the religion, as well as to the language, of Mecca. The genuine anti¬ quity of the Caaba extends beyond the Chrifiian sera: in deferibing the coaft of the Red Sea, the Greek hifiorian Diodorus has remarked between the Thamaudites and the Sabseans, a famous temple, whofe fuperior fanClity was revered by all the Arabians ; the linen or filken veil, w hich is annually renewed by the Turkifh emperor, was firfi of¬ fered by a pious king of the Homerites, who reigned 700 years before the time of Mahomet. A tent or cavern might fuffice for the worlhip of the favages, but an edi¬ fice of (tone and clay has been erected in its place; “and the art and power of the monarchs of the eaft have been confined to the fimplicity of the original model. A fpaci¬ ous portico inclofes the quadrangle of the Caaba ; a fquare chapel, twenty-four cubits long, twenty-three broad, and twenty-feven high ; a door and a window admit the light ; the double roof is fupported by three pillars of wood ; a fpout (now of gold) difeharges the rain-water, and the well Zemzem is protefted by a dome from accidental pol¬ lution. The tribe of Koreifii, by fraud or force, had acquired the cuftody of the Caaba ; the facerdotal office devolved through four lineal defeents to the grandfather of Mahomet ; and the family of the Hafhemites, from whence he fprung, was the moft refpeftabl® and facred in the eyes of their country. The precinfts of Mecca en¬ joyed the rights of fanftuary; and, in the laft month of each year, the city and the temple were crowded with a long train of pilgrims, who prefented their vow s and of¬ ferings in the houfe of God. The fame rites which are nowaccomplifiied by the faithful Muflulman were invented and praftiled by the fuperftition of the idolaters. At an awful diftance they caft away their garments ; feven times, with liafty fieps, they encircled the Caaba, and kiffed the black ftone ; feven times they vifited and adored the ad¬ jacent mountains ; feven times they threw ftones into the valley of Mina; and the pilgrimage was atchieved, as at the prefent hour, by a facrifice of fheep and camels, and the burial of their hair and nails in the confecrated ground. Each tribe either found or introduced in the Caaba their domeftic worfhip ; the temple was adorned, or defiled, with jfio idols of men, eagles, lions, and antelopes ; and mofi
B 1 A.
confpicuous was the fiatue of Hebal, of red agate, hold¬ ing in his hand feven arrows, without heads or feathers, the inftruments and fymbols of profane divination. But this fiatue was a monument of Syrian arts; the devotion of the ruder ages was content with a pillar or tablet ; and the rocks of the defert were hewn into gods or altars, in imitation of the black ftone of Mecca, which is deeply tainted with the reproach of an idolatrous origin. From Japan to Peru, the life of facrifice has univerfally pre¬ vailed ; and the votary has exprefied his gratitude or fear by deftroying or confuming, in honour